



^^ V 














t "%o^ ; 



^Jtb y ^ <3 5, *■ ^V£ . v <? "5» -* 



V 











^«p 






% \* 















rO" 



= A tf "%0^ « ^ 



* <3* 






O^ * y 



^ *< 










*<& 














r0 V 



%0^ 















<JF 












a>- 






U ,. 









Qi 
**<>, % 




ex '■ > <& 



^ <3* 







V 



> . v * o , ^/^ * * A 



^ 



^ ^ 






^ 









^p< 






^ 



Jfo^ 






i * o , */. 



^ 



^ ^ 



S .^ . i • o . °^ 



jflSNBIUISIII &MMNHAM9 



ADAPTED TO THE 



DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LEARNERS. 



AN" APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 

RULES AND OBSERVATIONS 

FOR ASSISTING THE MORE ABfVJlNCED STUBBJS 5 

TO 

WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY 

AND ACCURACY, 



" ; They who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and or 
tier, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order." 

Blaib, 



BY L1NDLEY MURRAY. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED BY EDWIN T. SCOTT, 

No. 61, North Eighth Street. 



1824. 



UP 



^ ok 



v /a/ 

INTRODUCTION. 



WHEN the number and variety of English Grammars already pub 
lished, and the ability with which some of them are^ written, are 
considered, little can be expected from a new compilation, besides $ 
careful selection of the most useful matter, and some degree of im- 
provement in the mode of adapting it to the understanding, and the 
gradual progress of learners. In these respects Something, perhaps, 
may yet be done, for the ease and advantage of young persons. 

In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is a medium 
to be observed, between treating the subject in so extensive and mi 
nute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their minds, by offering 
too much at once for their comprehension ; and, on the other hand-j, 
conducting it by such short and general precepts and observations, 
as convey to them no clear and precise information. A distribution 
of the parts, which is either defective or irregular, has also a tenden- 
cy to perplex the young understanding, and to retard its knowledge 
of the principles of literature. A distinct general view, or outline, 
of all the essential parts of the study in which they are engaged j a 
gradual and judicious supply of this outline ; and a due arrangement 
of the divisions, according to their natural order and connexion, ap- 
pear to be among the best means of enlightening the minds of youth, 
and of facilitating their acquisition of knowledge. The author of this 
work, at the same time that he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, 
which may be too concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or 
irregular in their disposition, has studied to render his subject suffi 
ciently easy, intelligible, and comprehensive. Fie does not presume 
to have completely attained these objects. How far he has succeeded 
in the attempt, and wherein he has failed, must be referred to the de- 
termination of the judicious and candid reader. 

The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting the performance 
in characters of different sizes, will, he trusts, be conducive to that 
gradual and regular procedure, which is so favourable to the busi- 
ness of instruction. The more important rules, definitions, and ob- 
servations, and which are therefore the most proper to be committed 
to memory, are printed with a larger type ; whilst rules and remarks 
that are of less consequence 5 that extend or diversify the general 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

idea, or that serve as explanations, are contained in the smaller let- 
ter : these, or the chief of them will be perused by the student to 
the greatest advantage, if postponed till the general system be com- 
pleted. The use of notes and observations, in the common and de- 
tached manner, at the bottom of the page, would not, it is imagined, 
be so likely to attract the perusal of youth, or admit of so ample and 
regular an illustration, as a continued and uniform order of the seve- 
ral subjects. In adopting this mode, care has been taken to adjust it 
so that the whole may be perused in a connected progress, or the 
part contained in the larger character read in order by itself. Many 
of the notes and observations are intended, not only to explain the 
subjects, and to illustrate them, by comparative views of the gram- 
mar of other languages, and of the various sentiments of English 
grammarians ; but also to invite the ingenious student to inquiry and 
reflection, and to prompt to a more enlarged, critical, and philoso- 
phical research. 

With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be improper 
more particularly to observe, that in selecting and forming them, it 
has been the author's aim to render them as exact and comprehensive, 
and, at the same time, as intelligible to young minds, as the nature 
of the subject, and the difficulties attending it, would admit. He 
presumes that they are also calculated to be readily committed to 
memory, and easily retained. For this purpose, he has been solici- 
tous to select terms that are smooth and voluble ; to proportion the 
members of the sentences to one another ; to avoid protracted pe- 
riods ; and to give the whole definition or rule, as much harmony of 
expression as he could devise. 

From ihe sentiment generally admitted, that a proper selection of 
fau In composition is more instructive to the young grammarian, than 
any rules and examples of propriety that can be siven, the Compiler 
has been induced to pay peculiar attention to this part of the sub- 
ject ; and though the instances of false grammar, under the rules of 
Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped they will not be found too many, 
when their variety and usefulness are considered. 

Isr a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, 
from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials se- 
lected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize 
for the use which the Compiler has made of his predecessors' labours ; 
or for omitting to insert their names. From the alterations which 
have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to 
suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes for 
which they are introduced ; and, in many instances, from the uncer- 
tainty to whom the passages originally belonged, the insertion of 
names could seldom be made with propriety. But if this could have 
been generally done, a work of this nature would derive no advan- 
tage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with 
a repetition of names and ref-rences. It is, however, proper to ac- 
knowledge, in general terms, that the authors to whom the gram- 
matical part of this compilation is principally indebted for its materi- 
als, are Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestly, Beattie* Sheridan, Walker s 
and Coote. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. contained 
in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted from the writings 
of Blair and Campbell, will, it is presumed, form a proper addition 
to the Grammar. The subjects are very nearly related ; and the study 
of perspicuity and accuracy in writing, appears naturally to follow 
that of Grammar. A competent acquaintance with the principles of 
both, will prepare and qualify the students, for prosecuting those ad- 
ditional improvements in language, to which they may be properly 
directed. 

On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, and the 
principles of Composition, much might be advanced, for the encou- 
ragement of persons in early life to apply themselves to this branch 
of learning ; but as the limits of this Introduction will not allow of 
many observations on the subject, a few leading sentiments are all 
that can be admitted here with propriety. As words are the signs 
of our ideas, and the medium by which we perceive the sentiments 
of others, and communicate our own ; and as signs exhibit the things 
which they are intended to represent, more or less accurately, ac- 
cording as their real or established conformity to those things is more 
or less exact; it is evident, that in proportion to our knowledge of 
the nature and properties of words, of their relation to each other, 
and of their established connexion with the ideas to which they are 
applied, will be the certainty and ease, with which we transfuse our 
sentiments into the minds of one another; and that, without a com- 
petent knowledge of this kind, we shall frequently be in hazard of mis- 
understanding others, and of being misunderstood ourselves. It may 
indeed be justly asserted, that many of the differences in opinion 
amongst men, with the disputes, contentions, and alienations of heart, 
which have too often proceeded from such differences, have been 
occasioned by a want of proper skill in the connexion and meaning 
of words, and by a tenacious misapplication of language. 

One of the best supports, which the recommendation of this study 
can receive, in small compass, may be derived from the following 
sentiments of an eminent and candid writer* on language and com- 
positition. " All that regards the study of composition, merits the 
" higher attention upon this account, that it is intimately connected 
" with the improvement of our intellectual powers. For 1 must be 
** allowed to say, that when we are employed, after a proper manner, 
<* in the study of composition, we are cultivating the understanding 
" itself. The study of arranging and expressing our thoughts with 
"propriety, teaches to think, as well as to speak, accurately." 

Before the close of this Introduction, it may not be superfluous to 
observe, that the author of the following work has no interest in it, 
but that which arises from the hope, that it will prove of some ad- 
vantage to young persons, and relieve the labours of those who are 
employed in their education. He wishes to promote, in some de- 
gree, the cause of virtue, as well as of learning ; and, with this view, 
he has been studious, through the whole of the work, not only to 
fcvoid every example and illustration, which might have an improper 

* Blair. 



b INTRODUCTION. 

effect on the minds of youth ; but also to introduce, on many ocea* 
sions, such as have a moral and religious tendency. His attention to 
objects of so much importance, will, he trusts, meet the approbation 
of every well-disposed reader. If they were faithfully regarded in all 
books of education, they would doubtless contribute very materially 
to the order and happiness of society, by guarding the innocence and 
cherishing the virtue of the rising generation, 

Eoldgate^ near York, 1795, 



ADVERTISEMENT 



TO THE NINTH EDITION, 



The eighth edition of this grammar received considerable altera" 
tions and additions : but works of this nature admit of repeated im- 
provements ; and are, perhaps, never complete. The author, solici- 
tous to render his book more worthy of the encouraging approbation 
bestowed on it by the public, has again revised the work with care 
and attention The new edition, he hope9, will be found much im- 
proved. The additions, which are very considerable, re, chiefly,, 
such as are calculated to expand the learner's views of the subject ; 
to obviate objections ; and to render the study of gran mar both easy 
and interesting. This edition contains also a new and enlarged sys- 
tem of parsing 1 ; copious lists of nouns arranged according to their 
gender and number; and many notes and observations, which serve 
to extend, or to explain, particular rules and positions * 

The writer is sensible that, after all his endeavours to elucidate 
the principles of the work, there are few of the divisions, arrange- 
ments, definitions, or rules, against which critical ingenuity cannot 
devise plausible objections. The subject is attended with so much 
intricacy, and admits of views so various, that it was not possible to 
render every part of it unexceptionable ; or to accommodate the 

* The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed through 
the book, and intended to illustrate and support a number of important 
grammatical points, will not, to young persons of ingenuity, appear to be 
dry and useless discussions. He is persuaded that, by such persons, they 
will be read with attention. And he presumes that these strictures will 
gratify their curiosity, stimulate application, and give solidity and perma* 
nence to their grammatical knowledge. In the Octavo edition of the gram« 
mar, the reader will find many additional discussions of Jiis nature. 

Holdgate, near Yorh % 1804. 



INTRODUCTION. ? 

work, in all respects, to the opinions and prepossessions of every 
grammarian and teacher. If the author has adopted that system 
which, on the whole, is best suited to the nature of the subject, and 
conformable to the sentiments of the most judicious grammarians ; if 
his reasonings and illustrations, respecting particular points, are 
founded on just principles, and the peculiarities of the English Ian 
guage ; he has, perhaps, done all that could reasonably be expected 
in a work of this nature ; and he may warrantably indulge a hope, that 
the book will be still more extensively approved and circulated^ 



CONTENTS. 



PART I.- 



•Orthography. 



chap, 1. Of letters. Pa ge 

Sect, 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 
alphabet. - 

2. General observations on the sounds of the 

letters. . 

3. The nature of articulation explained. 

chap. 2. Of syllables, and the rules for arrang- 
ing them. - 

chap. 3. Of words in general, and the rules for 
spelling them. - 



13 

20 
30 



30 

34 



PART II.- 



-Etymology. 



CHAP. 1. 

CHAP. 2. 

CHAP. 3. 

Sect. 1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

CHAP. 4. 

Sect. 1. 

2, 

CHAP. 5. 

Sect. 1. 
2. 
3. 

CHAP 6. 

Sect, h 
2. 
3. 

4,' 



A general view of the parts of speech. 

Of the articles. - 

Of substantives. 

Of substantives in general. ... 

Of gender. - - - 

Of number. ------ 

Of case. «--■--- 

Of Adjectives. _ 

Of the nature of adjectives, and the de- 
grees of comparison. - - - 
Remarks on the subject of comparison. 

Of pronouns. 

Of the personal pronouns. - - - - 

Of the relative pronouns. - 

Of the adjective pronouns. - - 

Of verbs. 

Of the nature of verbs in general. » 

Of number and person. - 

Of moods and participles. - - 
Remarks on the potential mood, 



38 
41 

43 

44 
46 
48 



52 
54 



55 
57 
59 



63 

66 
67 

70 



*U CONTENTS. 

Page 

Sect. 5. Of the tenses. 72 

6. The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs to have 

and tfo be. - 78 

7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their simple 

form ; with observations on their peculiar 

nature and force. * » - - $7 

8. The conjugation of regular verbs. - - 91 

9. Observation on passive verbs. 99 

10. Of irregular verbs. 102 

11. Of defective verbs ; and of the different ways 

in which verbs are conjugated. - - 108 

chap. 7. Of adverbs. - - - 109 
chap. 8. Of prepositions. - - - -115 

chap. 9. Of conjunctions. ... 115 

chap. 10. Of interjections. - - - 119 

chap. 11. Of derivation. 119 

Sect. 1. Of the various ways in which words are de- 
rived from one another. - - - • '119 
2, A sketch of the steps, by which the English 
language has risen to its present state of re- 
finement. - 12o 

PART III. Syntax. 

Of the syntax of the article. - - - .125 

Of the syntax of the noun. \f * - - 151 

Of several nouns joined by copulatives. - - 130 

Of nouns connected by disjunctives. .... 133 

Of nouns of multitude. .».--. 134 

Ol one noun governing another in the possessive case, - 153 

Of the syntax of the pronoun. 

Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents. - - 135 
Of the relative being nominative to the verb. - - 139 
Qf the relative preceded by nominatives of different per- 
sons. - - - - • --..-...- 141 

Of the syntax of the adjective, - * , ; - - ' 142 

Of the syntax of the verb. 

Of the verbs agreement with the nominative case, - 126 

Of verbs active requiring the objective case. - - 159 

Of one verb governing another in the infinitive m©oa\ • * 161 

Of verbs related in point of time. - - . 163 

Of the syntax of the participle, - 167 
Of the rules respecting adverbs. 



CONTENTS. 11 

Page 

Of the position of adverbs. - 169 

Of two negatives. - .... 172 

Of the syntax of prepositions. - * - 173 

Of the syntax of conjunctions* - - - 178 

Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, and 

cases. 1T6 

Of conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, &c. - 176 

Of the syntax of interjections. - - 138 

Of comparisons by the conjunction than or as. - 187 

-Directions respecting the ellipsis. - - - 188 

General rule of syntax. - - - - - 192 

Directions for parsing. - - = - - 195 

PART IV. Prosody. 

chap 1. Of pronunciation. - 204 

Sect. 1. Of accent. .-.-«. 204 

2. Of quantity. ~ 209 

3. Of emphasis. ..»*-. 211 

4. Of pauses. »..«.. 215 

5. Of tones. - ^ - - - , ' - - 218 
chap. 2. Of versification. - 220 

Of Punctuation. 

chap. 1. Of the comma. - - - . r 235 

cka p.2. Of the semicolon. - 240 

chap. 3. Of the colon. - - - - 241 

chap. 4. Of the period. - - 242 
chap. 5. Of the dash, notes of interrogation, 

exclamation, capitals, &c. - - 243 

APPENDIX. 

RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR PROMOTING PERSPI- 
CUITY AND ACCURACY IN WRITING. 

PART. I. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect 

to single words and phrases. 

chap. 1. Of purity. ... m gjQ 



12 CONTENTS. 

Page 
chap. 2. Of propriety. - - - - 251 

chap. 3. Of precision. - 257 

PART II. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect 

to the construction of sentence* 
chap. 1. Of the clearness of a sentence. - 262 
chap. 2. Of the unity of a sentence. - - 267 
chap. 3. Of the strength of a sentence. - 271 

chap. 4. Of figures of speech. - 287 

address to young students. - - - - 307 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz- orthography, 

ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY. 

This division may be rendered more intelligible to the 
student, by observing, in other words, that grammar treats, 
first, of the form and sound of the letters, the combination 
of letters into syllables, and syllables into words ; secondly, 
of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, 
and their derivation ; thirdly, of the union and right order 
of words in the formation of a sentence ; and lastly, of the 
just pronunciation, and poetical construction of sentences. 

PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 
OP THE LETTERS. 

Section 1. Of the nature of the Utters, and of a perfect 
alphabet. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of let- 
ters, and the just method of spelling words. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English language, called the En- 
glish Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters are the representatives of certain ar- 
ticulate sounds, the elements of the language. An ar- 
ticulate sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed 
by the organs of speech. 

B 



M ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following* is a list of the Anglo-Saxon, -Rom an ? Italic^ 
and Old English Characters. 

Saxon. Roman. Italic. Old English. Name, 



Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 




a 


a 


A 


a 


A 


a 


% 


a 


at. 


B 


b 


B 


b 


B 


b 


25 


6 


bee. 


X 


c 


C 


c 


C 


c 


€ . 


c 


see. 


D 


b 


D 


d 


D 


d 


5& 


& 


dee. 


e 


e 


E 


e 


E 


e 


€ 


t 


ee. 


F 


F 


F 


f 


F 


f 


iP 


f 


«B 


II 


S 


G 


g 


G 


g 


<0 





jee. 


b 


h 


H 


h 


H 


h 


H 


ft 


aitc/i. * 


I 


I 


I 


j 


1 


i 


a 


i 


i or £ydv 






J 


J 


J 


J 


a 


i 


J a !/- 


K 


k 


K 


k 


K 


k 


it 


ft 


/cat/. 


L 


1 


L 


1 


L 


I 


% 


\ 


eL 


CO 


m 


M 


m 


M 


m 


M 


m 


em. 


N 


n 


N 


n 


N 


n 


$ 


n 


en. 


o 


o 


O 


o 








<© 





o. 


p 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


# 


P 


pee. 






Q- 


q 


Q 


9 


a 


q 


cue. 


R 


F 


R 


r 


R 


r 


& 


K 


ar m 


S 


r 


S 


fs 


S 


fs 


& 


£ 


ess. 


T 


£ 


T 


t 


T 


t 


<€ 


t 


tee. 


© 


%tk 
















U 


U 


U 


u 


U 


u 


»j 


f« 


u or ^0« . 




V 


V 


V 


V 


V 


I* 


ppf. 


iu 


p 


w 


w 


w 


w 


3© 


to 


double m 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


£ 


j: 


eks. 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


H 


P 


wy. 


Z 


z 


z 


2 


z 


z 


<g 


s 


zed. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, in- 
deed, of every other language, would contain a number 
of letters, precisely equal to the number of simple arti- 
culate sounds belonging to the language. Every simple 
sound would have its distinct character ; and that charac- 
ter be the representative of no other sound. But this 
is far from being the state of the English alphabet. It has 
more original sounds than distinct significant letters; and, 
consequently, some of these letters are made to repre- 
sent, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will 
appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the 
united letters th, <?/?, ng, are elementary, and have no sin- 
gle appropriate characters, in our alphabet: and that the 
letters a and u represent the different sounds heard in 
fiat, hate, hall ; and in but, bull, mule. 

To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we 
shall set down the characters made use of to represent all 
the elementary articulate sounds of our language, as 
nearly in the manner and order of the present English 
alphabet, as the design of the subject will admit; and shall 
annex to each character the syllable or word, which con- 
tains its proper and distinct sound, And here it will be 
jp roper to begin with the vowels. 



Letters denoting the 
simple sounds. 

a 


as 


heard, in 


Words containing the 
simple sounds. 

fate 


a 




as 




in 


fall 


a 




as 




in 


fat- 


a 




as 




in 


far 


e 




as 




in 


me 


e 




as 




in 


met 


i 




as 




in 


pine 


i 




as 




in 


pin 


o 




as 




in 


no 


o 




as 




in 


not 


o 




as 




in 


move 


II 




as 




in 


mule 


u 




as 




in 


tub 


u 




as 




in 


bull 



By this list it appears, that there are in the English 
language fourteen simple vowel t sounds \ but as i and u. 
when pronounced long, may be considered as diphthongs, 



16 



ENGLISH GEAM3JAE. 



or diphthongal vowels, our language, strictly speaking, con- 
tains but twelve simple vowel sounds ; to represent which. 
we have only five distinct characters or letters. If a in 
far, is the same specific sound as a in fat ; and u in bull, 
the same as o in ?nove, which is the opinion of some 
grammarians; then there are but ten original vowel 
sounds in the English language. 

The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, 
being in number twenty-two. 

ILetters denoting the 
simple sounds, 
b 

d 

f 

V 

E 
h* 

k 

1 

m 

n 

P 
r 

s 
z 
t 

W 

y 

ng 

sh 

tti 

th 

zh 
Several letters marked in the English alphabet, as con- 
sonants, are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, 
but complex sounds. C, for instance, is superfious in 
both its sounds ; the one being expressed by £, and the 
other by s. G, in the soft pronunciation, is not a simple, 
but a complex sound ; as age is pronounced aidge. J is 

* Some grammarians suppose /* to mark only an aspiration, or breathing* : 
hut it appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by 
the organs of speeeh* Encgclopada Bvitawiic$> 







Words containing the 






simple sounds. 


as heai 


d in 


bay, tub 


as 


in 


day, sad 


as 


in 


off, for 


as 


m 


van, love 


as 


in 


egg, go 


as 


in 


hop, ho 


as 


in 


kill, oak 


as 


in 


lap, all 


as 


in 


my, mum 


as 


in 


no, on 


as 


in 


pin, map 


as 


in 


rap, cry 


as 


in 


so, lass 


as 


in 


zed, buzz 


as 


in 


top, mat 


as 


in 


wo, will 


as 


in 


ye, yes 


as 


in 


ing, sing 


as 


in 


shy, ash 


as 


in 


thin, thick 


as 


in 


then, them 


as 


in 


pleasure 



ORTHOGRAPHY, tf 

uivnecessary, because its sound, and that of the soft g, are in 
our language the same. Q, with its attendant w, is either 
complex, and resolveble into fav 9 as in quality ; or unneces- 
sary, becau-e its sound is the same with #, as in ofiague. 
X is compounded of gs, as in example ; or of ks y as in exficxt. 

From the preceding representation, it appears to be a 
point of considerable importance, that every learner of 
the English language should be taught to pronounce per- 
fectly, and with facility, every original simple sound that 
belongs to it. By a timely and judicious care in this re- 
spect, the voice will be prepared to utter, with ease and 
accuracy, every combination of sounds ; and taught^ to 
avoid that confused and imperfect manner of pronouncing 
words, which accompanies, through life, many persons 
who have not, in this respect, been properly instructed 
at an early period. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
uttered by itself : as a, e,o; which are formed without 
the help of any other souiid. 

A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot 
be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel : as 
by d,f y l; which require vowels to express them folly. 

The vowels are, a, -^ ?, tf, u y and sometimes %v and y* 

W and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable : but in every other situation they are vowels. 

It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, 
that %v and y are consonants when they begin a syllable or 
word, and 'vowels when they end one. That they are 
consonants, when used as initials, seems to be evident 
from their not admitting the article an before them, as it 
would be improper to say, an walnut, an yard, &c. ; and 
from their following a vowel without any hiatus or diffi- 
culty of utterance ; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they 
are vowels in other situations, appears from their regularly 
taking the sound of other vowels ; as, w has the exact sound 
of u in saw, few, now, Etc.; and y that of i, in hymn, fly, 
crystal, &c. See the letters W and Y, pages 30 and 3 i .* 

* The tetters iv and y, are of an ambiguous nature ; being consonants a^ 
the beginning of words, and vowels at the end. Encyclopaedia Britannicci. 
WALKER'S Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, page 24, third edition. 
PERRY'S English Dictionary, Preface, page 7. 

B 2 



18 ENGXISH GRAMMAR. 

We present the following' as more exact and philosophi- 
cal definitions of a vowel and consonant. 

A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself. 
and formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a 
certain conformation of the mouth, without any alteration 
in the position, or any motion of the organs of speech, 
from the moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends. 

A consonant is a simple, articulate sound? imperfect by 
itself, but which joined with a vowel, forms a complete 
sound, by a particular motion or contact of the organs of 
speech. 

Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the si?nfile and 
the comfiGund. But there does not appear to be any foun- 
dation for the distinction. Simplicity is essential to the 
nature of a vowel, Which excludes every degree of mixed 
or compound sounds. It requires, according to the defini- 
tion, but one conformation of the organs of speech, to form 
it, and no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the 
aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t % d, k, and c and g 
hard* 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound in them- 
selves. They are /, /, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c zndg 
soft. 

Four of the semi. vowels, namely, /, m, n, r % are also 
distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readi- 
ly uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it 
were into their sounds. 

We have shown above, that it is essential to the nature 
of a consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without 
the aid of a vowel. We may further observe, that even 
the names of the consonants, as they are pronounced 
in reciting the alphabet, require the help of vowels to 
express them. In pronouncing the names of the mutes 3 
the assistant vowels follow the consonants: as, be, fie, te % 
de, ka. In pronouncing the names of the semi-vowels* 
the vowels generally precede the consonants : as, ef, el, em } 
.en, ar, es, ex. The exceptions are, ce, ge, ve, zed. 

This distinction between the nature and the name of a 



OUTHOGEAPHY. 19 

consonant, is of great importance, and should be well 
explained to the pupil. They are frequently confounded 
by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on 
the name, are often applied to explain the nature, of a 
consonant ; and by this means, the student is led into 
error and perplexity, respecting these elements of Ian* 
guage. It should be impressed on his mind, that the 
name of every consonant is a complex sound ; but that the 
consonant itself, is always a simple sound. 

Some writers have described the mutes and semi- 
vowels, with their subdivisions, nearly in the following 
manner. 

The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be 
protracted. The. semi-vowels, such whose sounds can be 
continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vowels 5 
from which they derive their name. 

The mutes may be subdivided into pure and impure. The 
pure are those whose sounds cannot be at all prolonged^ 
they are k, fi, t. The impure, are those whose sounds 
may be continued, though for a very short space : they 
are 6, d y g. 

The semi-vowels may be subdivided into vocal and as- 
pirated. The vocal are those which are formed by the 
voice ; the aspirated, those formed by the breath. There 
are eleven vocal, and jive aspirated. The vocal are /, m 3 
?2, r, t7, <zu, v, 2T, th flat, z//, vg : the aspirated, f y /z, s, th 
sharp, sh> 

The vocal semi- vowels may be subdivided into pure and 
impure. The pure are those which are formed entirely 
by the voice: the impure, such as have a mixture of breath 
with the voice. There are seven pure — /, m., n, r, w, z/, 
ng ; four impure — v, z, th flat, zlu 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by 
a simple impulse of the voice,* as ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced 
in like manner ; as, eau in beau, tew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels 
are sounded ; as, ci, in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
sounded ; as, ea in eagle, ou in boat. I 

Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless ? origi- 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

nally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them, 
Though this is not the case at present, with respect to 
many of them, these combinations still retain the name of 
diphthongs ; but, to distinguish them, they are marked by 
the term improper. As the diphthong derives its name 
and nature from its sound, and not from its letters, and 
properly denotes a double vowel sound, no union of two 
■vowels,, where one is silent, can, in strictness, be entitled 
to that appellation ; and the single letters i and w, when 
pronounced long, must in this view,, be considered as 
diphthongs The triphthongs, having at most but two 
sounds, are merely ocular, and are, therefore, by some 
grammarians, classed with the diphthongs. 

Section 2. General observation on the sounds of the 
letters. 

A 

A has four sounds ; the long or slender, the broad, the 
short or open, and the middle. 

The long; as in name, basin, creation. 

The broad : as in call, wall, all. 

The short ; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 

The middle ; as in far, farm, father. 

The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in pro- 
per names; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, 
♦Oaal. 

Ae has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in 
Latin words. Some authors retain this form ; as, senigma, 
equator, Sec. ; but others have laid it aside, and write 
enigma, Cesar, Eneas, Sec. 

The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of 
g 9 as in pail, tail, Sec. ; pronounced pale, tale, Sec : except 
plaid, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 

Au is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, 
caught, Sec. Sometimes like the short or open a ; as in 
aunt, flaunt, gauntlet, Sec. It has the sound of long o in 
hautboy ; and that of o short in laurel, laudanum, Sec. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, scrawl, 
crawl. 

Ay j like its near relation ai, is pronounced like the long 
slender sound of a ,• as in pay, day, delay. 



OKTHOGRAPHY. 21 

B 

B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle* 
and end of words ; as in baker, number, rhubarb kc. 

In some wor s it is silent"; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, 
&c. In others, besides being silent, it lengthens the sylla- 
ble ; as in climb, comb, tomb 

C 

C has two different sounds. 

A hard sound like £, before a, o, 2/, r, /, t ; as in cart, 
cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends 
a syllable ; as in victim, flaccid. 

A soft sound like s before e, /, and ?/, generally ; as in 
centre, face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes 
the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social, 

C is mute in czar, czarine, victuals, &c. 

C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, 
never ends a word ; and therefore we find in our best dic- 
tionaries, stick, block, publick, politick, Sec. But many 
writers of latter years omit the k in words of two or more 
syllables ; and this practice is gaining ground, though it is 
productive of irregularities ; such as writing mimic and 
mimickry ; traffic and trafficking. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tch ; as in church, chin, 
chaff, charter ; but in words derived from the Greek, has* 
the sound of k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, dis- 
tich; and in foreign names ; as, Achish, Baruch, Enoch, 
he. 

Ch, in some words derived from the French, takes the 
sound of sh ; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as in arch- 
angel, archives, Archipelago ; except in arched, archery, 
archer, and arch-enemy : but before a consonant it always 
sounds like tch ; as in archbishop, archduke archpresby- 
ter-j Sec, Ch is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht 

D 

D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle) 
and end of words; as in death, bandage, kindred ; unless it 
may be said to take the sound of t> in stuffed, tripped. Sec. 
stuft, tript, &c. 

E 

B has three different sounds. 

A long sound; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A short sound ; as in men, bed, clemency. 

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound; as, open, 
lucre, participle. 

It has sometimes the sound of middle a; as in clerk, 
Serjeant; and sometimes that of short i; as in England, 
yes, pretty. 

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in mono- 
syllables that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : or in 
substantives derived from the Greek ; as, catastrophe, epi- 
tor.e, Penelope, It is used to soften and modify the fore- 
going consonants ; as, force, rage, since, oblige : or to 
lengthen the preceding vowel ; as, can, cane ; pin, pine ; 
rob, robe. 

The diphthong ca is generally sounded like e long ; as in 
appear, beaver, creature, &c. It has also the sound of short 
e ; as in breath, meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pro- 
nounced like the long and slender a ; as in bear, break, 
great. 

Eau has the sound of long o ; as in beau, flambeau, port- 
manteau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound 
of long u. 

Ei, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a ; as 
in deign, vein, neighbour, &c. It has the sound of long e in 
seize, deceit, receive, 'either neither, &c. It is sometimes 
pronounced like short i ; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c. 

Eo is pronounced like e long ; as in people ; and some- 
times like e short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the 
sound of short u ; as in dungeon, sturgeon puncheon Sec. 

Eu is always sounded like long tu or e%v ; as in feud ? 
deuce. 

Ew is almost always pronounced like long u ; as in few, 
new, dew, 

Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced like 
a long ; as in bey, grey, convey ; except in key, ley, where 
it is sounded like long e. 

When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound 
of e long ; as, alley, valley, barley. 

F 

F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the beginning, mid- 
dle, and end of words , as, fancy, muffin, mischief, Sec. : 
except in of, in which it has the flat sound of ov ; but not 
in composition ; as, whereof, thereof, Sec. We should not 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

pronounce, a wive's jointure, a calve's head ; but a wife's 
jointure, a calf's head. 

G has two sounds: one hard; as in gay, go, gun : the 
other soft ; as in gem, giant. 

At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, snug, 
frog. It is hard before a, o, w, /, and r ; as, game, gone 3 
gull, glory, grandeur. 

G before e, i, and y, is soft ; as in genius, gesture, gin- 
ger, Egypt , except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and 
some others. 

G is mute before n ; as in gnash, sign foreign, &c. 

Gw, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives 
the preceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn* 
oppugn, impregn, impugned ; pronounced impune, im- 
prene, Sec. 

Gh) at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the 
hard g ; as ghost, ghastly: in the middle, and sometimes 
at the end, it is quite silent ; as in right, high, plough^ 
mighty 

At the end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, cough^ 
tough Sometimes only the g is sounded ; as in burgh^ 
burgher. 

H 

The sound signified by this letter, is, as before observ- 
ed, an articulate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It 
is heard in the words, hat, horse, Hull. It is seldom mute 
at the beginning of a word. It is always silent after r ; 
as, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. 

H final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent; as, ah I 
hah ! oh ! foh ! Sarah, Messiah. 

From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in many 
words, and its total silence in others, added to the negli- 
gence of tutors, and the inattention of pupils, it has hap- 
pened, that many persons have become almost incapable 
of acquiring its just and full pronunciation. It is. therefore, 
incumbent on teachers, to be particularly careful to incul- 
cate a clear and distinct utterance of this sound. 

I 

/ has a long sound ; as in fine : and ? short one ; as in fin, 

The long sound is always marked by the e final in mono- 
syllables ; as thin, thine : except give, live. Before r it is 



t4 ENGLISH GRAMIAH. 

often sounded like a short u ; as flirt, first. In some woras 
it has the sound of e long ; as in machine, bombazine, ma- 
gazine. 

The diphthong ai is frequently sounded like ya ; as ia 
christian, filial, poniard ; pronounced christ-yan, Sec It 
has sometimes the sound of short i ; as in carriage, mar- 
riage, parliament. 

Ie sounds in general like e long ; as in grief, thief, gre- 
nadier. It has also the sound of long i j as in die, pie 9 
lie : and sometimes that of short i ; as in sieve. 

leu has th sound of long u ; as in lieu; adieu, purlieu. 

7b, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two 
distinct syllables ; as, priory, violet, violent. The termi- 
nations Hon and s/ow, are sounded exactly like the word, 
shun ; except when the t is preceded by s or x j as in 
question, digestion combustion mixtion, &c. 

The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly ir\ 
two syllables ; as in bilious, various, abstemious. But 
these vowels often coalesce into one syllable; as in pre- 
cious, factious, noxious, 

J 

J is pronounced exactly like soft g ; except in hallelu« 
jah, where it is pronounced like y. 

K 

K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e and /,. 
where, according to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, 
kept, king, skirts. It is not sounded before n ; as in knife, 
knell, knocker. It is never doubled, except in Habakkuk ; 
but c is used before it, to shorten the vowel by a double 
consonant ; as, cockle, pickle, sucker. 

L 

L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, 
quarrel. It is sometimes mute ; as in half, talk, psalm. 
The custom is to double the I at the end of monosyllables; 
as, mill, will, fall ; except where a diphthong precedes 
it ; as, hail, toil, soil. 

Le, at the end of words, is pronounceed like a weak el ; 
in which the e is almost mute; as, table, shuttle. 

M 

M has always the sa~ne sound ; as, murmur, monumen- 
tal; except in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. £5 

N 

JV has two sounds : the one pure; as in man, net, noble; 
the other a ringing sound like ng : as in thank, banquet, Sec. 

J\T is mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by 
m ; as, hymn, solemn autumn. 

The participial ing must always have its ringing sound 
as, writing reading, speaking. Some writers have sup- 
posed that when ing is preceded by ing, it should be pro- 
nounced in; as, singing bringing, should be sounded sing- 
in, bringin ; but as it is a good rule, with respect to pro- 
nunciation, to adhere to the written words, unless custom 
has clearly decided otherwise, it does not seem proper to 
adopt this innovation. 

O 

has a long sound; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; 
and a short one ; as in not, got, lot, trot. 

It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come* 
attorney. And in some words it is sounded like oo ; as in 
prove, move; and often like au ; as in nor, for lord. 

The diphthong ca is regularly pronounced as the long 
sound of o ; as in boat, oat, coal ; except in broad, abroad, 
groat, where it takes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, &c* 

Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long ; as 
in foetus, Antoeci: snd sometimes short ; as in ceconomics, 
oecumenical. In doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and bilboes, 
it is sounded exactly like long o. 

Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad 
and e long united, as in boy; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, 
anoint : which should never be pronounced as if written 
bile, spile, tile, £cc. 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound ; as in 
moon, soon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, 
foot, and a few others. In blood and flood it sounds like 
short u Door and floor should always be pronounced as 
if written dore and ftore. 

The diphthong ou has six different sounds. The first 
and proper sound is equivalent to ow in down ; as in bound., 
found, surround. 

The second is that of short u; as in enough, trouble; 
journey. 

The third is that of oo j as in soup, youth, tournament 

C 



26 ENGLISH G&AMHAR* 

The fourth is that of long o j as in though, niotir^ 
poultice. 

The fifth is that of short o; as in cough, trough. 

The sixth is that of awe ; as in ought, brought, thought. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou; as in brown, 
dowry, shower. It has also the sound of long o s as its 
snow, grown, bestow. 

The diphthong oy is but another form for <?i, and is pro- 
nounced exactly like it. 

P 

P has always the same sound, except, perhaps, in cup- 
board, where it sounds like b. It is sometimes mute; as 
is psalm, psalter, Ptolomy i and between m and tj as g 
tempt, empty, presumptuous. 

Ph is generally pronounced like fj as in philosophy, 
philanthropy, Philip. 

In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of <v. In 
apophthegm, phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters 
are entirely dropped. 

Q 

Q is always followed by u ; as, quadrant, queen quire. 

Qu is sometimes sounded like k j as, conquer, liquor 5 
risque. 

R 

R has a rough sound; as in Rome, river, rage; and a 
smooth one ; as in bard, card, regard. 

Re at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak 
er s as in theatre, sepuicre, massacre. 

S 

8 has two different sounds. 

A soft and flat sound like zj as, besom, nasal, dismal. 

A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 

It is always sharp at the beginning of words. 

At the end of words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, was, 
trees, eyes; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, 
surplus, &x.; and in words terminating with ous. 

It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before ; as, 
intrusion , but like s sharp, if it follows a consonant ; as, 
conversion. It also sounds like z before e mute; as, 
amuse ; and before y final ; as, rosy ; and in the words^ 
bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. 

S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

T 

T generally sounds, as in take, tempter. T before u f 
when the accent precedes , sounds like tch ; as, nature, vir- 
tue, are pronounced, natchure, virtchue. Tl before a 
vowel has the sound of sh ; as in salvation : except in such 
words as tierce* tiara, &c. and unless an s goes before ; 
as, question ; and excepting also derivatives from words 
ending- in ty ; as, mighty, mightier. 

77/ has two sounds : the one soft and flat ; as, thus, whe- 
ther, heathen : the other hard and sharp ; as, thing, think, 
breath. 

77/, at the beginning of words, is sharp ; as in thank, 
thick, thur?der : except in that, then, thus, thither, and some 
others. Th, at the end of words, is also sharp ; as, death, 
breath, mouth : except in with, booth, beneath, Stc. 

77/, in the middle of words, is sharp; as. panther. ortho« 
dox, misanthrope : except worthy, farthing, brethren, and 
a few others. 

Th, between two vowels, is generally Bat in words pure- 
ly English ; as, father, heathen together, neither, mother, 
Thy between two vowels in words from the learned lan- 
guages, is generally sharp ; as> apathy, sympathy, Athens* 
apothecary. 

Th is sometimes pronounced like simple t ; as, Thomas, 
thyme, Thames asthma. 

U 
U has three sounds viz. 
A long sound ; as in mule, tube, cubic. 
A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custard. 
An obtuse sound, like oo ; as in bull, full, bushel. 
The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural 
Hound, is in the words buzy, business, bury, and burial ; 
which are pronounced bizzy* bizness, berry, and berriaL 
A is now often used before words beginning with u long 
and an always before those that begin with u short ; as, a 
union, a university, a useful book ; an uproar, an usher, 
an umbrella. 

The dipthong ua, has sometimes the sound of wa ,• as 
in assuage, persuade, antiquary It has also the sound of 
middle a j as in guard, guardian, guarantee. 

Ue is often sounded like we ; as in quench, querist, con- 
quest. It has also the sound of long u; as in cue, hue. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ague. In a few words, it is pronounced like e short ; as 
in guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk ; as in 
antique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dialogue. &c 

Ui is frequently pronounced wi ; as in languid- anguish? 
extinguish. It has sometimes the sound of i long ; as in 
guide, guile, disguise : and sometimes that of i short ; as 
in guilt, guinea. Guildhall. In some words it is sounded 
like long u ; as in juice, suit, pursuit : and after r, like 
oo ; as in bruise , fruit, recruit. 

Uo is pronounced like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quon- 
dam. 

Uy has the sound of long e ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; 
pronounced obloquee, Sec. ; except buy, and its derivatives, 

V 

V has the sound of flat f; and bears the same relation to 
it, as b does to fl* d to r, hard g to £, and z to s. . It has 
also one uniform sound ; as, vair, vanity^ love. 

W 

W) when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as 
water resembles the sound of ooa er ; but that it has a 
stronger and quicker sound than oo, and has a formation, 
essentially different, will appear to any person who pro- 
nounces, with attention, the words wo, woo, beware ; and 
who reflects that it will not admit the article an before it ; 
which oo would admit. In some words it is not sounded ; 
as in answer, sword, wholesome ; it is always s lent be- 
fore r; as in wrap, wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, wry, 
bewray, &c. 

W before h is pronounced as if it were after the // ; as, 
why. hwy ; when, hwen ; what, hwat. 

W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without 
affecting the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow,, 
know, row, Bow, &c. 

When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronun- 
ciation, it has exactly the same sound as u would have in 
the same situation; as, draw, crew, view, now, sawyer, 
vowel, outlaw. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. 

It is sounded like z in the beginning of proper names 
of Greek original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like k&, when it ends a syllable with 



ORTHOGRAPHY. <29 

the accent upon it ; as, exit, exercise, excellence ; or 
when the accent is on the next syllable, if it begins with 
a consonant; as, excuse* extent, expense. 

It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent 
is not on it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; 
as, exert, exist, example ; pronounced, egzert, egzist-, 
egzample* 

F, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee ; as 
youth, York, resemble the sounds of eeouth, eeork : but 
that this is not its exact sound, will be clearly perceived 
by pronouncing the words ye, yes, ne<w~year in which its 
just and proper sound is ascertained. It not only requires a 
stronger exertion of the organs of speech to pronounce it, 
than is required to pronounce ee ; but its formation is es- 
sentially different. It will not admit of an before it, as ee 
will in the following example ; an eel. The opinion that 
y and w when they begin a word or syllable, take exact- 
ly the sound of ee and oo has induced some grammarians to 
assert that these letters are always vowels and diphthongs. 

When y is a vowel, is has exactly the same sound as i 
would have in tne same situation ; as rhyme, system, jus- 
tify, pyramid partv> farcy hungry. 

Z 

Z has the sound of an ,* uttered with a closer com- 
pression of the • alate by the tongue: it is the flat s ; as, 
freeze frozen brazen. 

It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the let- 
ters vary, as they are differently associated, and ;hat the 
pronunciation of these associations depends upo/i the po- 
sition of the accent It may also be observed, that in 
order to pronounce accurately, great attention must be ' 
paid to the vowels which are not accented There is 
scarcely any thing which more distinguishes a person of 
a poor education from a person of a good one than the 
pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When vowels 
are under the accents the best speakers and the lowest of 
the people, with very few exceptions pronounce them 
in the same manner ; but the unaccented vowels in the 
mouths of the former have a distinct, open- and specific 
sound, while the latter often totally sink them) or change 
'them into some other sound. 

c2 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Section 3. The nature of articulation e&filained, 

A concise account of the origin and formation of the 
sounds emitted by the human voice may, perhaps, not 
improperly, be here introduced. It may gratify the in- 
genious student, and serve to explain more fully the na- 
ture of articulation, and the radical distinction between 
vowels and consonants. 

Human voice is air sent out from ?he lungs, and so agi- 
tated or modified in its passage through the windpipe and 
larynx, as to become distinctly audible- The windpipe is 
that tube, which on touching the forepart of our throat 
externally, we feel hard and uneven. It conveys air in- 
to the lungs for the purpose of breathing and speech The 
top or upper part of the windpipe is called the larynx^ 
consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be expand- 
ed or brought together, by the action of certain muscles 
which operate all at the same time. In the middle of the 
larynx there is a small opening called the glottis^ through 
which the breath and voice are conveyed. This opening 
is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and therefore, 
the breath transmitted through it from the lungs must 
pass with considerable velocity The voice thus formed^ 
is strengthened and softened by a reverberation from the 
palate and other hollow places in the inside of thr mouth 
and nostrils ; and as these are belter or worse shaped for 
this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or less 
agreeable. 

If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one 
and the same human voice is capable of uttering together 
with the smallness of the diameter of the glottis; and re- 
Beet, that the same diameter must always produce the same 
tone, and, consequently, that to every change of tone a cor- 
respondent change of diameter is necessary ; we must be 
filled with admiration at the mechanism of these parts, and 
the fineness of the fibres that operate in producing effects 
so minute, so various, and in their proportions so exactly 
uniform. For it admits of proof, that the diameter of the 
human glottis is capable of more than sixty distinct de- 
grees of contraction or enlargement, by each of which a 
different note is produced; and yet the greatest diameter 
of that aperture, as before observed, does not exceed one 
tenth of an inch. 



OETHOGRAPllV, Si 

Speech is made up of articulate voices ; and what we 
call articulation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, 
or larynx, but by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, 
tongue, lips, and nostrils. Articulation begins not, till 
the breath, or voice, has passed through the larynx. 

The simplest articulate voices are those which pro- 
ceed from an open mouth, and are by grammarians called 
vowel sounds. In transmitting these, the aperture of the 
mouth may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or 
very small ; which is one cause of the variety of vowels ; 
a particular sound being produced by each particular 
aperture. Moreover, in passing through an open mouth, 
the voice may be gently acted upon, by the lips, or by the 
tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat; whence 
another source of variety in vowel sounds. 

Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be form- 
ed, agreeably to the plan in page 15; and the learners, 
by observing the position of their mouth, lips, tongue, 6cc. 
when they are uttering the sounds, will perceive that va- 
rious operations of these organs of speech, are necessary 
to the production of the different vowel sounds and that 
by minute variations they may all be distinctly pronoun- 
ced. 

When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is to- 
tally intercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed a 
certain modification of articulate sound, which, as ex- 
pressed by a character in writing, is called a consonant. 
Silence is the effect of a total interception ; and indistinct 
sound, of a strong compression; and therefore a conso- 
nant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; and its in- 
fluence in varying the tones of language is not clearly 
perceived, unless it be accompanied by an opening of the 
mouth, that is by a vowel. 

By making the experiment with attention, the student 
will perceive that each of the mutes is formed by the voice 
being intercepted, by the lips, by the tongue and palate, or 
by the tongue and throat; and that the semi-vowels are 
formed by the same organs strongly compressing the voice 
in its passage, but not totally intercepting it, 

The elements of language, according to the different 
seats where they are formed, or the several organs of 
speech chiefly concerned in their pronunciation, are divi- 



32 E'HGLtSH GRAMMAR, 

dec! into several classes, and denominated as follows 2 
those are called labials^ which are formed by the lips; 
those dentals^ that are formed with the teeth ; fialatals? 
that are formed with the palate ; and ?iasals, that are 
■.formed by the nose. 

The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, dis- 
tinct, and accurate knowledge of the sounds of the first 
principles of language and a wish to lead young minds t© 
a further consideration of a subject so curious and useful, 
have induced the compiler to bestow particulay at- 
tention on the preceding part of this work. Some wri- 
ters think that these subjects do not properly consti- 
tute any part of grammar ; and consider them as the ex- 
clusive province of the spelling-book ; but if we reflect, 
that letters and their sounds are the constituent principles of 
that art which teaches us to speak and write with pro- 
priety, and that in general, very little knowledge of their- 
nature is acquired by the spelling-book, we must admit, 
that they properly belong to grammar ; and that a ration- 
al consideration of these elementary principles of lan- 
guage is an object that demands the attention of the young- 
grammarian. The sentiments of a very judicious and 
eminent writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of gram- 
mar, may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present 
occasion, 

* Let no person despise., as inconsiderable, the elements 
of grammar, because it may seem to them a matter of 
small consequence, to show the distinction between vowels 
and consonants, and to divide the latter into liquids and 
mutes. But they who penetrate into the innermost parts 
of this temple of science will there discover such refine- 
ment and subtility of matter, as are not only proper to 
sharpen the understandings of young persons, but suffi- 
cient to give exercise for the most profound knowledge 
and erudition." 

The elementary sounds under their smallest combi- 
nation produce a syllable; syllables properly combined 
produce a word ; words duly combined produce a sentence ; 
and sentences properly combined produce an oration or 
discourse.. Thus it is, says Harris, in his Hermes, that* 
to principles apparently so trivial as a few plain element- 
ary sounds, we owe that variety of articulate voices, which 



ORTHOGRAPHY. So 

has beet) sufficient to explain the sentiments of so innu- 
merable a multitude, as all the present and past generations 
of men. 

CHAPTER II. 
OF SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING THEM, 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound- 
ed, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and 
constituting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant, 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into 
their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper 
letters. 

The following are the general rules for the division of 
words into syllables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be join- 
ed to the latter syllable : as, de-light, bri-dal, re-scurse ex- 
cept the letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-amine : and except like- 
wise words compounded ; as, up»on, un-even, dis-ease. 

2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not 
be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle* But when they come be- 
tween two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, 
they must be divided ; as, utmost, un-der, in-sect, er-ror, 
cof-fin. 

3 When three consonants meet in the middle of a 
word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel 
be pronounced long, they are not to be separated ; as, de- 
throne, destroy. But when the vowel of the preceding 
syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants al- 
ways belongs to that syllable ; as dis-tract, dis- prove, dis- 
train. 

4 When three or four consonants, which are not proper 
to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them 
as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to 
the former syllable : as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, dan- 
dier, dap-ple, con-strain, hand-some, parch-ment. 

5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided 
into separate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci e-ty. 

6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple 
words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house* glow^ 
\vorm, over-power, never- the- less. 



-34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are 
generally separated : as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing : 
teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; goodness, free- 
dom, false-hood. 

The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the rea- 
sons in support of them, are expressed at large in the author's 
English Spelling-book, Thirteenth) or any subsequent, edi- 
tion, page 210 — 215. 

CHAP. III. 
Of words in general^ and the rules for spelling them. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common coo- 
sent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a 
word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three- 
syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more 
syllables, a Polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to 
any simpler word in the language : as, man, good, con- 
tent. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to 
another word in English of greater simplicity : as, man- 
ful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire. 5 ^ 

There are many English words which, though compounds 
in other languages, are to us primitives: thus, circumspect, 
circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &c. 
primitive words in English; will be found derivatives, when 
traced in the Latin tongue. 

The orthography of the English Language is attended 
with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable 
part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to 
the general laws of formation; and, for this end, the learner 
is presented with a view of such general maxims in spelling 
primitive and derivative words, as have been almost univer- 
sally received. 

* A compound word is included under the head of derivative words : as$ 
penknife, teacup, looking-glass ; may be redoced to other words of greater 
simplicity. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. Q$ 

RULE 1. 

Monosyllables ending with /, /, or s, preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel, double the final consonant : as, staff, mill, pass* 
&c. The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, bis, 
this, us, and thus. 

RULE II. 

Monosyllable ending with any consonant but f y I. or s t 
and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final 
consonant ; excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn ? 
purr, and buzz. 

RULE III. 

Words ending with t/, preceded by a consonant, form 
the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, 
past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by chang- 
ing y into i: as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest ; he car- 
rieth, or carries; carrier, carried; happy, happier, hap- 
piest. 

The present participle in ing % retains the t/, that i may not 
be doubled ; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, Sec. 

But ?/, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, 
is not changed; as, boy, boys: I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, 8cc. ; 
except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, 
paid, and said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, un- 
said, &c. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon, 
assuming an additional syllable beginning with a conso- 
nant, commonly change y into i; as, happy, happily, hap- 
piness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very 
rarely changed in the additional syllable; as, coy, coyly; 
boy, boyish, boyhood: annoy, annoyer, annoyance; joy, joy- 
less, joyful. 

rule v. 

Monosyllable s ? and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel; 
double that consonant, when they take another syllable be- 
ginning with a vowel: as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet 
an abettor ; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the pre 
ceding syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toh\ 
toiling ; to offer, an offering; maid, maiden, &c. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAK* 

RULE VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking 
mess, less, ly, or Jul, after them, preserve the letter dou- 
ble ; as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly. stiffly $ 
successful, distressful, &c, But those words which end 
with double /, and take ness, less, ly y or ful, after them, 
generally omit one I j.&s fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, 8cc, 

RULE VII. 

Ness, less, ly, aud/W, added to words ending with silent 
e, do not cut it off: as, paleness^ guileless, closely, peaceful; 
except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

Merit, added to words ending with silent e> generally 
preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, 
incitement, Sec. The words judgment, abridgment, ac- 
knowledgment, are deviations from the rule. 

Like other terminations, merit changes y into i s when pre- 
ceded by a consonant ; as accompany, accompaniment, merry, 
merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with 
silent e, almost always cut it off: as, blame, blamable ; 
cure, curable; sense, sensible, kc. : but if c or g soft 
comes before e in the original word, the e is then pre- 
served in words compounded with able j as change, changea- 
ble ; peace, peaceable, Sec. 

RULE x. 

When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e } 
the e is almost universally omitted : as, place, placing ; 
lodge, lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 

RULE xi. 

Words taken into composition, often drop those letters 
Which were superfluous in the simple words : as handful; 
dunghil, withal, also, chilblain, foretel. 

The orthography of a great number of English words 
is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of dis- 
tinction. Thus, honour and honor, inquire and enquire, 
negotiate and negotiate, control and controul, expense and 
expence, allege and alledge, surprise and surfirize, complete 
and compleat, connexion and connection, abridgment and 
abridgement, and many other orthographical variations 3 
are to be met with in the best modern publication 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 37 

Some authority for deciding differences of this nature, 
appears to be necessary : and where can we find one of 
equal pretentions with Dr. Johnson's Dictionary ? though 
a few of his decisions do not appear to be warranted by 
the principles of etymology and analogy, the stable foun- 
dations of his improvements.— i$ As the weight of truth, 
and reason (says Nares in his *' Elements of Orthoepy 5 *} 
is irresistible, Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed 
the external form of our language. Indeed, so conve- 
nient is it to have one acknowledged standard to recur to ; 
so much preferable, in matters of this nature, is a trifling 
degree of irregularity, to a continual change, and fruit- 
less pursuit of unattainable perfection ; that it is earnestly 
to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, 
be tempted to innovate." 

This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical 
inconsistencies, which ought to be rectified : such as, immova 
hie moveable, chastely chastness, fertileness fertily, sliness 
slyly, fearlessly fearlesnessj needlessness needlesly. If these 5 
and similar irregularities, were corrected by spelling the 
words analogically, according to the first ward in each part of 
the series, and agreeably to the general rules of spelling, the 
Dictionary would doubtless, in these respects, be improved. 



D 



PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY 



CHAPTER r. 

A General View of the Parts of Speech. 

The second part of grammar is etymology, which 
treats of the different sorts of words, their various mo- 
difications, and their derivation. 

There are, in English, nine sorts of words, or, as 
they are commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, 
the article, the substantive or noun, the adjec- 
tive, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the pre- 
position, the conjunction, and the interjection. 

1. An Artiqle is a word prefixed to substantive, to 
point them out, and to show how far their signification 
extends : as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

2. A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion : as, London, 
man^ virtue. 

A substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its 
taking an article before it, or by its making sense of it- 
self : as, a book, the stm, an aflfile ; temperance, industry , 
chastity. 

3. An Adjective is a word added to a substantives, to 
express its quality : as " An industrious man ; a vir- 
tuous woman." 

An Adjective may be known by its making sense with 
the addition of the word thing : as a good thing ; a dad 
thing : or of any particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, 
a pleasant prospect, a lively boy. 

4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, 
cc The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful*" 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

o* A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or 
to suffer : as, u I am ; I rale; I am ruled" 

A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making 
sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to be- 
fore it : as, I walk, he plays, they write j or, to walk, to play* 
to write, 

6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
ai^ adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to ex- 
press some quality or circumstance respecting it: as. 
"He reads well ; a truly good man; he writes very cor- 
rectly." 

An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering 
to the question, How ? how much ? when ? or where ? as, 
in the phrase <c He reads correctly" the answer to the ques- 
tion, How does he read ? is, correctly. 

7. Prepositions serve to connect words with one an- 
other, and to show the relation between them : as, " He 
went from London to York ;" 4C she is above disguise :" 
^ they are supported by industry." 

A Preposition may be known by its admitting after it a per 
sonal pronoun, in the objective case ; as, with, for, to, &c 
will allow the objective case after them ; with him, for her* 
to them* &c. 

8. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more 
sentences to make but one : it sometimes connects only 
words : as, a Thou and he are happy, because you are 
good." " Two and three are fiv^." 

9. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions 
of the speaker : as, " O virtue ! how amiable thou art!" 

The observations which have been made, to aid learn- 
ers in distinguishing the parts of speech from one another, 
may afford them some small assistance ; but it whl cer- 
tainly be much more instructive^ to distinguish them by 
the definitions, and an accurate knowledge of their na- 
ture. 

In the following passage, all the parts of speech are 
exemplified : 



o 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

I 2 7 2 51 2 3 72 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man j 

s 55 7474 3 2 7 

and was bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator for 

* 3 36 3 289 66 

the greatest and most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often 

& 4 5 471 37 2 

Jo we pervert it to the worst of purposes ! 

In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are articles ; 
fwwcr, s/ieech, faculty, man, Creator, uses, fmrfioses, are 
substantives ; peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, worst. 
are adjectives ; him, his, we, it, are pronouns ; is, was, be- 
stowed, do pervert, are verbs ; most, how, often, are adverbs : 
of to, on, by, for, are prepositions ; and, but, are conjunc- 
tions ; and alas is an interjection. 

The number of the different sorts of words, or of the 
parts of speech, has been variously reckoned by different 
grammarians. Some have enumerated ten, making the 
participle a distinct part ; some eight, excluding the par- 
ticiple, and ranking the adjective under the noun ; some 
four, and others only two, (the noun and the verb,) sup- 
posing the rest to be contained in the parts of their divi- 
sion. We have followed those authors, who appear to have 
given them the most natural and intelligible distiibution. 
Some remarks on the division made by the learned Home 
Tooke, are contained in the first section of the eleventh chap- 
ter of etymology. 

The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy of be- 
ing considered as a part of artificial language or speech, 
being rather a branch of that natural language, which we 
possess in common with the brute creation, and by which 
we express the sudden emotions and passions that actuate 
our frame. But, as it is used in written as well as oral 
language, it may, in some measure, be deemed a part of 
speech. It is with us, a virtual sentence, in which the noun 
and verb are concealed under an imperfect or indigested word 
«— See this Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar* 

CHAPTER II, 

Of the Articles. 
An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point 



ETYMOLOGY, 4i 

them out, and to show how far their signification ex- 
tends ; as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

In English, there are but two articles, a and the : a 
becomes an before a vowel,* and before a silent h; as, 
an acorn, an hour. But if the h be sounded, the a 
only is to be used ; as, a hand, a heart, a highway. 

The inattention of writers and printers to this necessary 
distinction, has occasioned the frequent use of an before h t 
when it is to be pronounced; and this circumstance, more 
than any other, has probably contributed to that indistinct 
utterance, or total omission, of the sound signified by this 
letter, which very often occurs amongst readers and 
speakers. An horse, an husband, an herald, an heathen, 
and many similar associations, are frequently to be found 
in works of taste and merit. To remedy this evil, read, 
ers should be taught to omit in all similar cases> the sound 
of the », and to give the // its full pronunciation. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article ; it is used in 
a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, 
in other respects indeterminate : as, " Give me a 
book;" u Bring me an apple." 

The is called the definite article ; because it ascer- 
tains what particular thing or things are meant ; as, 
4i Give me the book ;" " Bring me the apples :" mean- 
ing some book, or apples, referred to. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, is gene- 
rally taken in its widest sense : as, u A candid temper 
is proper for man ;" that is, for all mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will 
be seen in the following examples ; * The son of a king— 
the son of the king — a son of the king." Each of these 
three phrase* has an entirely different meaning, through 
the different application of the articles a and the, 

" Thou art a man,'* is a very general and harmless po- 
sition; but, " Thou art the man," (as Nathan said to Da- 
vid,) is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse 
into the heart. 

* A instead of an is now used before words beginning with wlong. See 
page 29, letter U, It is also used before one ; as, many a one, 

D 2 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the dif- 
ferent virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, 
metals, herbs, &c. ; as, "prudence is commendable; 
falsehood is odious; anger ought to be avoided;" Sec. It 
Is not prefixed to a proper name ; as, " Alexander," (be- 
cause that of itself denotes a determinate individual or 
particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing a 
particular family ; as, « He is a Howard, or of the fami- 
ly of the Howards ;" or by way of eminence : as, u Every 
man is not a Newton;' 5 " He has the courage of an Achilles: 5 " 
or when some noun is understood ; " He sailed down the (ri- 
ver) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 

When an adjective is used with the noun to which the 
article relates, it is placed between the article and the noun ; 
as, " a good man," " an agreeable woman," " the best friend." 
On some occasions, however, the adjective precedes a or an £ 
as, " bucJi a shame," " as great a man as Alexander," t€ too 
tareless an author." 

The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in 
the singular number only; the definite article may be joined 
also to plurals, 

But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this 
rule, in the use of the adjectives few and many, (the latter 
chiefly with the word great before it,) which, though joined 
with plural substantives, yet admit of the singular article a : 
as, a few men ; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the ar- 
ticle has in these phrases ; it means a small or great num- 
ber collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a 
whole, that is, of unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a score, a 
hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggregate 
of many collectively taken ; and therefore still retains the ar- 
ticle a, though joined as an adjective, to a plural substantive ; 
as, a hundred years, &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the ad- 
jective many, and a singular noun s as, 

*' Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

M The dark unfathom*d caves of ocean bear : 

44 Full many a flow 9 r is born to blush unseen* 
" And waste its sweetness on the desert air a 

In these lines, the phrases, many a gan and many ajlontfr. 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

refer to mamj gems and many Jiow'rS) separately, not 
collectively considered. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs 
in the comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect 
is, to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define 
it the more precisely : as, " The more I examine it, the 
better I like it. I like this the least of any." See this 
Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar. 

CHAPTER III. 

Of Substantives* 
Section i. Of Substantives in general. 

A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion : as, Lon- 
don, man, virtue. 

Substantives are either proper or common. 

Proper names or substantives, are the names appro- 
priated to individuals : as, George, London, Thames. 

Common names or substantives, stand for kinds con» 
taining many sorts, or for sorts containing many indivi- 
duals under them ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 

When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
they are used as common names, as, u He is the Ci- 
cero of his age ; he is reading the lives of the Twelve 
Ccesars" 

Common names may also be used to signify indivi- 
duals, by the addition of articles or pronouns : as, " The 
boy is studious ; that girl is discreet."^ 

To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; 
and they are all of the third person when spoken of and 
of the second when spoken to : as, " Blessings attend 
as on every side ; be grateful, children of men !" that is 
ye children of men. 

* Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : Collective nouns, 
or nouns of multitude ; as, the people, the parliament, the army : abstract 
nouns, or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, know 
ledge, goodness, whiteness : Verbal ov participial nouns ; as beginning, 
reading* writing* 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Section 2, Of Gender, 

Gender is the distinction of nouns, with regard to sex, 

There are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male 
kind : as, a man, a horse, a bull, 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female 
kind : as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither 
males nor females : as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure 
of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine 
gf nder : as, when we say of the sun, he is setting; and 
of a ship, she sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give 
the masculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for 
the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which 
are by nature strong and efficacious. Those, again, are 
made feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of 
containing or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly 
beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is 
said to be masculine ; and the moon being the receptacle 
of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally 
feminine, a ship, a country a city, kc, are likewise mack 
feminine, being receivers or containers. Time is always 
masculine on account of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is 
feminine from its beauty, and its being the object of love. 
Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine 



gender. 








* 


The Eng] 


ish language 


has three methods of distinguish 


ing the sex, 


viz. 










1, By different words : 


as, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 




Female - 


Bachelor. 


Maid. 


Husband. 




Wife. 


Boar. 


Sow. 


King. 




Queen. 


Boy. 


Girl. 


Lad. 




Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lord. 




Lady. 


Buck, 


Doe 


Man. ; 




Woman* 





: V JUG LOGY. 


45 


Male. 


Female, 


Male. 


Female. 


Bull. 


Cow. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Bullock or 


> Heifer. 


Milter. 


S pawner, 


Steer. 


Nephew. 


Niece. 


Cock. 


Hen. 


Ram. 


Ewe. 


Dog. 
Drake. 


Bitch. 
Duck. 


Singer. 


C Songstress or 
\ Singer. 


Earl. 


Countess. 


Sloven. 


Slut. 


Father. 


Mother. 


Son. 


Daughter. 


Friar. 


Nun. 


Stag. 


Hind, 


Gander. 


Goose. 


Uncle. 


Aunt. 


Hart. 


Roe. 


Wizard. 


Witch. 


Horse. 


Mare. 






2 


By a difference of termination : as 5 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot. 


Abbess. 


Landgrave. 


Landgravine* 


Actor. 


Actress. 


Lion. 


Lioness. 


Administrator. Administratrix. Marquis. 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer. 


Adultress. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Ambassador. 


Ambassadress 


. Mayor. 


Mayoress. 


Arbiter. 


Arbitress. 


Patrcn. 


Patroness* 


Baron. 


Baroness. 


Peer. 


Peeress. 


Bridegroom. 


Bride. 


Poet. 


Poetess. 


Benefactor. 


Benefactress. 


Priest. 


Priestess. 


Caterer. 


Cateress. 


Prince. 


Princess. 


Chanter. 


Chantress. 


Prior. 


Prioress. 


Conductor. 


Conductress. 


Prophet. 


Prophetess. 


Count. 


Countess. 


Protector. 


Protectress. 


Deacon. 


Deaconess. 


Shepherd. 


Shepherdess* 


Duke 


Duchess, 


Songster. 


Songstress, 


Elector. 


Electres?. 


Sorcerer, 


Sorceress, 


Emperor. 


Empress. 


Sultan. 


C Sultaness. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress, 


1 Sultana. 


Executor. 


Executrix. 


Tiger. 


Tigress, 


Governor. 


Governess. 


Traitor, 


Traitress, 


Heir. 


Heiress. 


Tutor. 


Tutoress. 


Hero. 


Heroine. 


Viscount, 


Viscountess 


Hunter. 


Huntress. 


Votary. 


Votaress. 


Host. 


Hostess. 


Widower, 


Widow, 


levy* 


Jewess* 







46 English gbamsab. 

3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective? being prefixed to 
the substantive : as, 

A cock-sparrow, A hen-sparrow. 

A man-servant. A rnaid-servant. 

A he-goat. A she-goat. 

A he-bear. A she-bear. 

A male child. A female child. 

Male descendents. Female descendants. 

It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either mas- 
culine or feminine. The words fiarent, child, cousin, friend, 
neighbour, servant, and several others, are used indiffer 
entiy for males or females. 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to concise- 
ness and perspicuity of expression. We have only a suffi- 
cient number of them to make us feel our want ; for when 
we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a 
builder, a weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the ter 
mination, which we cannot avoid ; but we can say, that 
she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, an orphan , 
a companion, because these terminations have not annexed 
to them the notion of sex. 

Section 3. Of Number* 

Number is the consideration of an object, as one or 
more. 

Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object ; as, a 
chair, a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one ; 
as, chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express, are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, 
pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c; others, only in the plural 
form ; or, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as deer ? 
sheep, swine, &c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding $ to the singular : as, dove, doves ; face, faces ^ 



fcTYMOLOGY. 4/ 

thoughty thoughts. But when the substantive singular 
ends in x y ch soft, sh y ss or s, we add es, in the plural : as, 
box, boxes, church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; 
rebus, rebuses. If the singular ends in ch hard, the plu- 
ral is formed by adding s ; as, monarch, monarchs ; dis- 
tich, distichs, /- 

Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es, added to the 
plural ; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, vol- 
cano, wo ; and sometimes only s ; as, folio, nuncio, punc- 
tilio, seraglio. 

//Nouns ending in f, or fe, are rendered plural by the 
change of those terminations into ves : as, loaf, loaves ; 
half, halves ; wife, wives : except grief ,relicf, reproof, 
and several others, which form the plural by the addition 
of s. Those which end in ff, have the regular plural : 
as, ruff, ruffs ; except, staff, staves. 7*- 
//Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel 
in the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural ; as* 
beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is not changed 
when there is another vowel in the syllable ; as, key, keys ; 
delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys, yt^. 

// Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the 
singular into e : as, man, men ; woman, women ; alder- 
man, aldermen. ^.The words, ox and child, form oxen and 
children; brother, makes either brothers, or brethren 
Sometimes the diphthong 00 is changed into ee in the 
plural : as, foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. Louse 
and mouse make lice and mice. Penny makes pence, or 
pennies, when the coin is meant : die, dice (for play ;) 
die, dies (for coining.) 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the gene- 
rality of correct writers, to construe the following words as 
plural nouns ; pains, riches, alms : and also, mathematics, 
metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, with other 
similar names of sciences. 

Dr. Johnsons says that the adjective much is sometimes 
a term of number, as well as of quantity. This may ac- 
count for the instances we meet with of its associating with 
pains as a plural noun : as, " much pains/' The connex 
ron, however, is not to be recommended. 



48 



£KGf.ISH GKA^^JLAR* 



The word news is now almost universally considered as 
belonging to the singular number. 

The noun means is used both in the singular and the 
plural number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from 
the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distin- 
guished, with respect to number. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Cherub* 


Cherubim. 


Datum. 


Data. 


Seraph. 


Seraphim. 


Effluvium. 


Effluvia, 


Antithesis. 


Antitheses. 


Encomium. 


$ Encomia or 
£ Encomiums. 


Automaton. 


Automata. 


Basis. 


Bases. 


Erratum. 


Errata. 


Crisis. 


Crises. 


Genius* 


Genii.* 


Criterion. 


Criteria. 


Genus. 


Genera. 


Diuresis. 


Diiereses. 


Index. 


^ Indices or 


Ellipsis. 


Ellipses.* 


I Indexes.! 


Emphasis. 


Emphases. 


Lamina. 


Laminae. 


Hypothesis. 


Hypotheses. 


Medium. 


Media. 


Metamor- 


C Metamor- 


Magus. 


Magi. 


phosis, 


/ phoses. 


Memoran- 


r Memoranda or 


Phenomenon. Phenomena. 


dum. 


\ Memorandums 


Appendix* 


<> Appendices or Radius. 


Radii. 


\ Appendixes. 


Stamen. 


Stamina. 


Arcanum. 


Arcana. 


Stratum. 


Strata. 


Axis. 


Axes. 


Vortex. 


Vortices* 


Calx. 


Calces. 







Some words, derived from the learned languages, are 
confined to the plural number: as, antipodes, credenda, 
literati, minutix. 

The following nouns being, in Latin 5 both singular and 
plural, are used in the same manner, when adopted into our 
tongue : hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

Section 4. Of Case. 

In English substantives have three cases, the nomi- 
native, the possessive, and the objective.§ 

* Genii, -when denoting aerial apirits : Geniuses, when signifying persons 
of genius. 

\ Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of contents : Indices, 
when referring to Algebraic quantities. 

§ The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case j and the objec« 
live, the accusative. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



49 



The nominative case simply expresses the name of a 
thing, or the subject of a verb : as, " The boy plays ;" 
^ The girls learn. 5 ' 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property 
or possession ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s 
coming after it : as, " The scholar's duty ;*' " My father's 
house." 

When the plural ends in s, the other 5 is omitted, but 
the apostrophe is retained : as, " on eagles' wings ;" 
" The drapers' company." 

Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss^ 
the apostrophic s is not added: as, " For goodness* 
sake ;" " For righteousness' sake." 

The objective case expresses the object of an action^ 
or of a relation ; and generally follows a verb active, or 
a preposition : as, " John assists Charles $" " They live 
in London." 

English substantives are declined in the following 
manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative Case. A mother. Mothers. 

Possessive Case. A mothers Mothers'. 

Objective Case. A mother. Mothers. 



Nominative Case. The man. 
Possessive Case. The man's. 
Objective Case. The man. 



The men. 
The men's 
The men. 



The English language, to express different connexions 
and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most 
part, prepositions. The Greek and Latin among the an- 
cient, and some too among the modern languages, as the 
German, vary the termination or ending of the substantive, 
to answer the same purpose ; an example of which, in the 
Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of the nature and use of 
cases, viz. 

I-' ^ Singular. 

Nominative. Dominus, 

Genitive. Domini, 

Dative. Domino, 

E 



A Lord. 

Lord's, of a Lord, 

To a Lord. 



50 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



A Lord, 
O Lord. 
By a Lord. 

Lords. 

Lords', of Lords . 

To Lords. 

Lords. 

O Lords. 

By Lords. 



Accusative. Dominum, 

Vocative. Domine, 

Ablative. Domino, 

Plural. 

Nominative, Domini, 

Genitive. D6minorum 5 

Dative. Dominis, 

Accusative, Dominos, 

Vocative. Domini, 

Ablative. Dominis. 

Some writers think, that the relations signified by the 
addition of articles and prepositions to the noun, may pro- 
perly be denominated cases, in English : and that, on this 
principle, there are, in our language, as many cases as 
in the Latin tongue. But to this mode of forming cases 
for our substantives, there are strong objections. It would, 
indeed, be a formal and useless arrangement of nouns, 
articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of this na- 
ture were to be considered as constituting cases, the Eng- 
lish language would have a much greater number of 
them than the Greek and Latin tongues: for, as every 
preposition has its distinct meaning and effect, every com- 
bination of a preposition and article with the noun would 
form a different relation, and would constitute a distinct 
case. — This would encumber our language with many 
new terms, and a heavy and useless load of distinctions.* 

On the principal of imitating other languages in names 
and forms, without a correspondence in nature and idiom, 
we might adopt a number of declensions, as well as a va- 
riety of cases, for English substantives. Thus, five or 
six declensions, distinguished according to the various 
modes of forming the plural of substantives, with at least 
half a dozen cases to each declension, would furnish a 
complete arrangement of English nouns, in all their trap- 
pings. See on this subject, the fifth and ninth sections of 
the sixth chapter of etymology. 

* If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of the noun, 
or by the different relations it may bear to the governing word, then we 
have in our language as many cases almost, as there are prepositions : and 
above a man, beneath a man, beyond a man, round about a man, within a 
man, without a man, Sec, shall be cases, as well as, of a man, to a man, and 
with a man." Dr. Beattie* 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

But though this variety of cases does not at all corres- 
pond with the idiom of our language, there seems to be 
great propriety in admitting a case in English substan- 
tives, which shall serve to denote the objects of active 
verbs and of prepositions ; and which is, therefore, pro- 
perly termed the objective case. The general idea of case 
doubtless has a reference to the termination of the noun : 
but there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in 
which the nominative and accusative cases have precise- 
ly the same form, and are distinguished only by the rela- 
tion they bear to other words in the sentence. We are 
therefore warranted, by analogy, in applying this prin- 
ciple to our own language, as far as utility, and the idiom 
of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in English, a 
noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, is 
very differently circumstanced, from a noun in the no- 
minative, or in the possessive case : and that a comprehen- 
sive case, correspondent to that difference, must be useful 
and proper/ The business of parsing, and of showing the 
connexion and dependence of words, will be most con- 
venient! accomplished, by the adoption of such a case ; 
and the irregularity of having our nouns sometimes placed 
in a situation, in which they cannot be said to be in any 
case at all, will be avoided. 

The author of this work long doubted the propriety of 
assigning to English substantives an objective case : but 
a renewed, critical examination of the subject ; an exa- 
mination to which he was prompted by the extensive and 
increasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his 
mind a full persuasion, that the nouns of our language are 
entitled to this comprehensive objective case. 

When the thing to which another is said to belong, is 
expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the 
sign of the possessive case is commonly added to the last 
tern:* : as, " The king of Great Britain's dominions." 
. Sometimes, though tarely, two nouns in the possessive 
case immediately succeed each other, in the following 
form: " My friend's wife's sister;' 5 a sense which would 
be better expressed by saying " the sister of my friend's 
wife ;" or, " my friend's sister-in-law." Some grammari- 
ans say, that in each of the following phrases, viz, « A 



$% ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

book of my brother's." « A servant of the queen's," " A 
soldier of the king's," there are two genitive cases ; the 
first phrase implying, " one of the books of my brother," 
the next, « one of the servants of the queen ;" and the last, 
" one of the soldiers of the king," But as the preposition 
governs the objective case ; and as there are not, in each 
of these sentences, two apostrophes with the letter * com- 
ing after them, we cannot with propriety say, that there 
are two genitive cases. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of Adjectives* 

Section. 1. Of the nature of Adjectives , and the 

degrees of com/i a rison , 

An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to ex- 
press its quality : as, " An industrious man ;" " A virtu- 
ous woman ;" " A benevolent mind." 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account of 
gender, number, or case. Thus we say, " A careless 
boy ; careless girls." 

The only variation which it admits, is that of the de- 
grees of comparison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of 
comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the 

SUPERLATIVE, 

Grammarians have generally enumerated these three 
degrees of comparison ; but the first of them has been 
thought by some writers, to be, improperly, termed a de- 
gree of comparison ; as it seems to be nothing more than 
the simple form of the adjective, and not to imply either 
comparison or degree. This opinion may be well found- 
ed, unless the adjective be supposed to imply comparison 
or degree, by containing a secret or general reference to 
other things : as s when we say, " he is a tall man, ' " this 
is a fair day," we make some reference to the ordinary 
size of men, and to different w-eather. 

The Positive State expresses the quality of an ob- 
ject, without any increase or diminution : as, good 5 
wise, great. 



ETYMOLOGY.. 53 

The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the 
positive in signification ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the po- 
sitive to the highest or lowest degree : as, wisest, great- 
est, least wise. 

The simple ord, or positive, becomes the compa- 
rative, by adding r or er ; and the superlative, by add- 
ing st or est, to the end of it : as, wise, wiser, wisest; 
great, greater, greatest- And the adverbs more and 
most, placed before the adjective, have the same effect : 
as, wise, more wise 9 most wise. 

the termination ish may be accounted in some sort a 
degree of comparison, by which the signification is dimi- 
nished below the positive : as, black, blackish, or tending 
to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather is very properly used to express a small 
degree or excess of a quality : as, " She is rather profuse 
in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er 
and est ; and dissyllables by more and most : as, mild, 
milder mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal. Dis- 
syllables ending in y ; as, happy, lovely ; and in le after a 
mute, as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllables 
as, discreet, polite; easily admit of er and est: as, hap- 
pier, happiest : abler, ablest ; politer, politest. Words 
of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of those ter- 
minations. 

In some words the superlative is formed by adding the 
adverb most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, 
or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost 

In English, as in most languages, there are some words 
of very common use (in which the caprice of custom is 
apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in 
this respect : as, " good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; 
little, less, least; much or many, more, most ; near, nearer, 
nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or ei- 
der, oldest, or eldest ;" and a few others. 

An adjective put without a substantive with the definite 
article before it, becomes a substantive in sense and 
meaning, and is written as a substantive ; as, " Providencd 
rewards the go&d, and punishes the bad" 

E 2 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the 
nature of adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, 
meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal- 
cardinal, as, one, two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, 
second, third, &c. 

Section 2, Remarks on the subject of Comparison* 

If we consider the subject of comparison attentively* 
we shall perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in 
number, or at least indefinite.— A mountain is larger than 
a mite ; — by how many degrees ? How much bigger is the 
earth than a grain of sand ? By how many degrees was 
Socrates wiser than Alcibiades ? or by how many is snow 
whiter than this paper . ? It is plain, that to these, and the 
like questions, no definite answers can be returned. 

In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured* 
the degress of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot 
is just twelve times as long as an inch ; and an hour is 
sixty times the length of a minute. But, in regard to qualU 
ties % and to those quantities which cannot be measured 
exactly, it is impossible to say how many degrees may be 
comprehended in the comparative excess. 

But though these degrees are infinite or indefinite in 
fact, they cannot be so in language ; nor would it be con- 
venient, if language were to express many of them. In 
regard to unmeasured quantities and qualities, the degrees 
of more and less, (besides those marked above,) may be 
expressed intelligibly, at least, if not accurately, by cer- 
tain adverbs, or words of like import ; as, " Socrates was 
much wiser than Alcibiades ;" " Snow is a great deal 
whiter than this paper ;" " Epaminondas was by far the 
most accomplished of the Thebans ; JS " The evening star 
Is a very splendid object, but the sun is incomparably more 
splendid;" "The Deity is infinitely greater than the 
greatest of his creatures." The inaccuracy of these? 
and the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience ; 
and, if it were, it is unavoidable : for human speech can 
only express human thought ; and where thought is neces- 
sarily inaccurate, language must be so too. 

When the word very % exceedingly^ or any other of simi- 



ETYMOLOGY* 55 

lar import, is put before the positive, it is called by some 
writers the superlative of eminence, to distinguish it from 
the other superlative* which has been already mentioned, 
and is called the superlative of comparison. Thus, -very 
eloquent, is termed the superlative of eminence; most 
eloquent^ the superlative of comparison. In the superlative 
of eminence, something of comparison is, however, re- 
motely, or indirectly intimated ; for we cannot reasonably 
call a man very eloquent, without comparing his eloquence 
with the eloquence of other men. 

The comparative may be so employed, as to express 
the same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative, 
Thus, the sentence, " Of all acquirements, virtue is the 
most valuable" conveys the same sentiment as the follow- 
ing ; " Virtue is more valuable than every other acquire- 
ment." 

CHAPTER V. 

Of Pronouns. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as. 
" The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." 

There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. the personal, 
the PvELATiVE, and the adjective pronouns. 

section i. Of the Personal Pronouns. 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. /, thou, he, 
she, it ; with their plurals, rue, ye, or you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, 
and case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each number, 
viz. 

i, is the first person "") 

Thou, is the second person I Singular* 

He, she, or it, is the third person J 

We, is the first person ") 

Ye or you 9 is the second person i Plural. 

They, is the third person J 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when 
\ye reflect, that there are three persons who may be the 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 




subject of any discourse ; first, the person who speaks, 
may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak of the per- 
son to whom he addresses himself ; thirdly, he may speak 
of some other person ; and as the speakers, the persons 
spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may be many, 
so each of these persons must have the plural number. 

The numbers of Pronouns* like those ol substantives, 
are two, the singular and the plural : as, 2, thou, he; zve, 
ye or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular 
of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is fe- 
minine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being- at the same 
time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be pre- 
sent; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is 
commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a dis- 
tinction of gender in the pronouns : but the third person 
or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects 
unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a 
distinction of gender; at least when some particular per- 
son or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly 
marked: accordingly the pronoun singular of the third 
person has the three genders, he, she, it. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. ' 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form 
different from that ol the nominative, or the possessive 
case. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 



Person. 


Case. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


First. 


Nam. 


I. 


We. 




Pass, 


Mine. 


Ours. 




Obj. 


Me. 


Us. 


Second. 


Norn. 


Thou. 


Ye or you 




Poss, 


Thine. 


Yours. 




Obj. 


Thee. 


You. 


Third. 


Norn. 


He. 


Theyw 


Mas. 


Poss* 


His. 


Theirs, 




Obj. 


Him, 


Them* 







ETYMOLOGY 


Person. 


Case. 


Singular. 


Third. 


Norn. 


She. 


Fern. 


i Poss. 


Hers, 




Obj. 


Her. 


Third. 


Nora. 


It. 


Neater. 


Poss. 


Its. 




Obj. 


It. 



Plural. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them* 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 



section 2. Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to 
some word or phrase going before, which is thence called 
the antecedent : they are, who, which, and that : as, " The 
man is happy who lives virtuouslyf." 

What is a kind of compound relative, including both the 
antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to 
that which ; as, " This is what I wanted ;" that is to say, 
** the thing which I wanted." 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inani-« 
mate things : as, "He is z friend, who is faithful in ad- 
versity :" u The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown ;" 
" This is the tree, which produces no fruit/' 

That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too 
frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied to 
both persons and things : as, a He that acts wisely de- 
serves praise ;" " Modesty is a quality that highly adorns 
a woman." 

Who is of both nunbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Who . 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Which, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, 
but they do not vary their termination ; except that whose 
is sometimes used as the possessive case of which : as., 
" Is there any other doctrine whose followers are pu- 
nished ?" 



f The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word or 
phrase which is not antecedent, but subsequent, to the relative. See note 
under the VI. Rule of Syntax, 



oB ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



And the fruit 



Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 

Brought death." melton* 

■ " Pure the joy without allay, 

whose very rapture is tranquillity." . young. 

" The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 
Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pope, 

" This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being 
a religion whose origin is divine." * blair. 

By the use of this license, one word is substituted for 
three: as, " Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in the 
knowledge of nature," for, < k Philosophy, the end oj 'which 
is to instruct us," &c. 

Who, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever 
and ever annexed to them ; as, " whosoever or whoever, 
whichsoever or whichever, whatsoever or whatever :" but they 
are seldom used in modern style. 

The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a de- 
monstrative pronoun, and sometimes, a conjunction. It is 
a relative, when it may be turned into who or which with- 
out destroying the sense: as,- " They that (who") reprove 
us, may be our best friends ;" " From every thing that 
(which you see, derive instruction." It is a demonstra- 
tive pronoun when it is followed immediately by a sub- 
stantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which 
it limits or qualifies: as, " That boy is, industrious;" 
"That belongs to me;" meaning, that 1 book, that desk? 
&c. It is a conjunction, when it joins sentences together,, 
and cannot be turned into who or which, without destroy- 
ing the sense : as, ' Take care that every day be well em- , 
ployed." * I hope he will believe that I have not acted 
improperly." 

ff Who, which, and what, are called Interrogatives, when 
they are used in asking questions; as, " Who is he?" 
" Which is the book ?" " What art thou doing V\jt*~- 

Whether was formerly made use of to signify interro- 
gation : as, " Whether of these shall I choose ?"' but it is 
now seldom used, the interrogative which being substi- 
tuted for it. Some Grammarians think that the use of it 
should be revived* as, like, either and neither^ it points to 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

the dual number; and would contribute to render our 
expressions concise and definite. 

Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a sepa- 
rate kind of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related 
to the relative pronouns, both in nature and form, to ren- 
der such a division proper. They do not, in fact, lose 
the character of relatives, when they become interroga- 
tives. The only difference is, that without an interroga- 
tion, the relatives have reference to a subject which is 
antecedent, definite, and known ; with an interrogation, to 
a subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, 
and which it is expected that the Answer should express and 
ascertain. 

Section 3. Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, partici- 
paring the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four 
sorts, namely, the possessive, the distributive, the demon- 
strative, and the indefinite. 

1. The possessive are those which relate to possession 
or property. There are seven of them ; viz. my, thy, his, 
her, our, your, their. 

Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly 
used before a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a 
vowel, or a silent h : as, " Blot out all mine iniquities." 

The pronoun, his, mine, thine, have the same form, 
whether they are possessive pronouns, or the possessive 
cases of their respective personal pronouns. See note to 
Rule 10. 

A few examples will probably assist the learner, to dis- 
tinguish the possessive pronouns from the genitive cases of 
their correspondent personal pronouns. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pro- 
nouns.— " My lesson is finished ; Thy books are defaced ; 
He loves his studies ; She performs her duty ; We own 
our faults ; Your situation is distressing ; I admire their 
virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of 
the personal pronouns. — Ct Th^s desk is mine ; the other 
is thine ; These trinkets are his ; those are hers ; This 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

house is owrs, and that is yours ; Theirs is very commodi- 
ous. 

Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 
The two words own and self are used in conjunction 
with pronouns. Own is added to pdssessives, both singu- 
lar and plural : as, " My own hand, our own house." It 
is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety or opposi- 
tion : as, " I live in my own house," that is, " not in a 
hired house." Self is added to possessives : as, myself 
yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pronouns : as, him- 
self itself themselves. It then like own, expresses em- 
phasis and opposition : as, " I did this myself" that is, 
"not another; " or it forms a reciprocal pronoun: as, 
3 , We hurt ourselves^by vain rage." 

Himself themselves, are now used in the nominative case 
instead of hisself, their s elv es ; as, "He came himself;" 
" He himself shall do this ;" " They performed it them- 
selves." 

2. The distributive are those which denote the per- 
sons or things that make up a number, as taken sepa- 
rately and singly. They are each, every , either : as» 
" Each of his brothers is in a favourable situation ;'' 
^ Every man must account for himself]" 4C I have not 
seen either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signi- 
fies either of the two, or every one of any number taken 
separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies, 
each one of them all taken separately. This pronoun 
was formerly used a part from its noun, but it is now con- 
stantly annexed to it, except in legal proceedings: as in 
the phrase, c all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately? 
and signifies the one or the other. To say, " either of the 
three," is therefore improper. 

Neither imports K not either ;" that is, not one nor the 
other : as, Neither of my friends was there." 

3. The demonstrative are those which precisely point 
out the subjects to which they relate : this and that, 
these, and those, are of this class : as, " This is true charity; 
that is only its image." 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that 
to the most distant : as, " This man is more intelligent 
than that" This indicates the latter or last mentioned 
that the former or first mentioned : as, " Both wealth 
and poverty are temptations ; that, tends to excite pride, 
this, discontent.' 5 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly 
ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in 
many of their applications. The following sentence may 
serve as an example : " It was happy for the state, that 
Fabius continued in the command with Minucius : the 
former's phlegm was a check upon the tatter's vivacity." 

4. The indefinite are those which express their sub- 
jects in an indefinite or general manner. The fol- 
lowing are of this kind : some, other, any, one, all, such, 
&c. 

Of these pronouns, only the Words one and other are va- 
ried. One has a possessive case, which it fofms in the 
same manner as substantives : as, one, one's. This word 
has a general signification, meaning people at large ; and 
sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
speaking : as, " One ought to pity the distresses of man- 
kind." " One is apt to love one's self." This word is 
often used, by good writers, in the plural number : as, 
" The great ones of the world ;" " The boy wounded the 
old bird, and stole the young ones;" " My wife and the lit- 
tle ones are in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


Other 


Others 


Poss. 


Other's 


Others', 


Obj. 


Other 


Others, 



The plural others is only used when apart from the noun 
to which it refers, whether expressed or understood ; as, 
"When you have perused these papers, I will send you 
the others." « He pleases some, but he disgusts others." 
When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or 
plural, it has no variation : as, « the other man," « the 
other men." 

F 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the incle 
finite pronouns. u Some of you are wise and good ;" 
•' A few of them were idle, the others industrious ;" " Nei- 
ther is there any that is unexceptionable ;" " One ought to 
know one's own mind;" "they were all present -" " Such 
is the state of man, that he is never at rest :" <{ Some 
are happy, while others are miserable/' 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article 
prefixed to the word other. 

None is used in both numbers : as, .' None is so deaf as 
he that will not hear ;" " None of those are equal to 
these. 5 ' It seems originally to have signified, according 
to its derivation, not one, and therefore to have had no 
plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in the 
plural number : as, " None that go unto her return again. 5 ' 
Prov. ii. 19. " Terms of peace were none vouchsaf'd." 
Milton. u None of them are varied to express the gen- 
der," " None of them have different endings for the num- 
bers." Lowth's Introduction. " None of their produc- 
tions are extant." Blair. 

I We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the 
adjective pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them 
intelligibly : but it is difficult, perhaps impracticable, to 
define and divide them in a manner perfectly unexcep- 
tionable. Some of them, in particular, may seem to re- 
quire a different arrangement. We presume, however, 
that, for every useful, purpose the present classification is. 
sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, except the per- 
sonal and relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, 
be considered as definitive pronouns, because they define 
or ascertain the extent of the common name, ©r general 
term, to which they refer, or are joined ; but as each 
class of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a man- 
ner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to this circum- 
stance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, and 
the understanding of learners. 

It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that 
the words this., that> any> some, such, his, their, our, See. are 
pronouns, when they are used separately from the nouns 
to which they relate ; but that, when they are joined to 
those nouns, they are not to be considered as belonging 
to this species of words ; because, in this association, 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

.hey rather ascertain a substantive, than supply ihe place 
of one. They assert that, in the phrases, " give me 
thatf* "this is John's," and "such were some of you," 
the words in italics are pronouns ; but that, in the fol- 
lowing phrases, they are not pronouns ; this book is 
instructive," " some boys are ingenius," fi my health is 
declining," " our hearts are deceitful," &c. Other gram- 
marians think, that all these words are pure adjectives ; and 
that none of them can properly be called pronouns ; as 
the genuine pr noun stands b> itself, without the aid of a 
noun expressed or understood. They are of opinion, 
that in the expressions, " Give me that/' " this is John's," 
kc the noun is always understood, and must be supplied 
in the mind of the reader : as, " Give me that book /' 
" this book is John's ;" " and such persons w r ere some per- 
sons amongst you." 

Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should 
be classed into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under 
the former, they include the personal and the relative ; 
under the latter, all the others. But this division, though 
a neat one, does not appear to be accurate. All the rela- 
tive pronouns will not range under the substantive head. — 
We have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode 
which we think most correct and intelligible : but, for the 
information of students* and to direct their inquiries on the 
subject, we state the different opinions of several judi- 
cious grammarians. See the Octavo Grammar on these 

'■ts. 

CHAPTER. VI. 

Of Verbs. 
Section 1. Of the nature of Verbs in general. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
differ ; as, lt I am, I rule, I am ruled." 

Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neu- 
ter. The}' are also divided into regular, irregular, 
and defective. 

A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessarily 
implies an agent, and an object acted upon : as, to 
love ; " I love Penelope/' 

A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

the receiving of an action ; and necessarily implies an 
object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted 
upon : as, to be loved ; " Penelope is loved by me." 

A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, 
but being, or a state of being : as, " I am, I sleep, I 

The verb active is also called transitive, because the 
action passes over to the object, or has an effect upon 
some other thing : as, " The tutor instructs his pupils ;" 
" I esteem the man." 

Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransi 
lives, because the effect is confined within the subject, and 
does not pass over to any object: as, "I sit, he lives, 
they sleep." 

Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neu- 
ters, make a near approach to the nature of a verb active ; 
but they may be distinguished from it by their being in- 
transitive : as, to run, to walk, to fly, &c. The rest are 
more obviously neuter, and more clearly expressive of a 
middle state between action and passion : as, to stand, to 
lie, to sleep, 6cc. 

In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a 
neuter signification, the construction only determining of 
which kind they are : as, to flatten, signifying to make even 
or level, is a verb active ; but when it signifies to grow 
dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter. 

A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may 
become a compound active verb. To smile is a neuter 
verb; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective 

* Verbs have!been distinguished by same writers, into the following kinds. 

1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passed from 
the agent to some object : as, Cesar conquered Pompey. 

2d, Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, 
which has no effect upon any thing beyond the agent himself: as, Cesai: 
walked. 

3d Passive, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether- 
pleasing or painful ; as, Portia was loved ; Pompey was conquered. 

4th. Neater, or those which express an attribute that consists neither it- 
action nor passion : as, Cesar stood. 

This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active- 
intransitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the 
learner : for the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive 
and intransitive, is easy and obvious; but the difference between verbs ab 
solutely neuter and intransitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed 
often very difficult to be ascertained, 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

case, nor be construed as a passive verb. We cannot say, 
she smiled him, or he was smiled. But to smile on being 
a compound active verb, we properly say, she smiled on 
him : he was smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. 

Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help of 
which the English verbs are principally conjugated. 
They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with their 
variations ; and let and must, which have no variation.* 

In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which 
signifies to he, to do, or to suffer, &c. we have included 
every thing, either expressly or by necessary consequence, 
that "is essential to its nature, and nothing that is not essen- 
tial to it. This definition is warranted by the authority 
of Dr. Lowth, and of many other respectable writers on 
grammar. There are, however, some grammarians, who 
consider assertion as the essence of the verb. But, as the 
participle and the infinitive, if included in it, would prove 
insuperable objections to their scheme, they have, without 
hesitation, denied the former a place in the verb, and de- 
clared the latter to be merely an abstract noun. This ap- 
pears to be going rather too far in support of an hypothesis. 
It seems to be incumbent on these grammarians, to reject 
also the imperative mood What part of speech would 
they make the verbs in the following sentence ? li Depart 
instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins " Will 
it be said, that the verbs in these phrases are assertions ? 

In reply to these questions, it has been said, that '■ De- 
part instantly, " is an expression equivalent to, " I desire 
you to depart instantly ;" and that as the latter phrase im- 
plies affirmation or assertion, so does the former. But, 
supposing the phrases to be exactly alike in sense, the 
reasoningis not conclusive. 1st. In the latter phrase, the 
only part implying affirmation, is, " 1 desire." The words 
"to depart," are in the infinitive mood, and contain no 
assertion : they affirm nothing. 2d. The position is not 
tenable, that " Equivalence in sense implies similarity in 
grammatical nature." It proves too much, and therefore 
nothing. This mode of reasoning would confound the 
acknowledged grammatical distinction of words. A pro- 

* Let, as a principal verb, has lettest and letteth ; but as a helping verb, 
it admits of no variation. 

F2 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

noun, on this principle, may be proved to be a noun ; a 
noun, a verb; an adverb, a noun and preposition; the 
superlative degree, the comparative ; the imperative mood, 
the indicative ; the future tense, the present ; and so on : 
because they may respectively be resolved into similar 
meanings. Thus, in the sentence, " I desire you to de- 
part," the words to depart, maybe called a noun, because 
they are equivalent in sense to the noun departure, in the 
following sentence, " I desire your departure." The words 
a Depart instantly," may be proved to be, not the impera- 
tive mood with an adverb, but the indicative and infinitive, 
with a noun and preposition ; for they are equivalent to 
"I desire you to depart in an instant." The superlative 
degree in this sentence, " Of all acquirements virtue is the 
most valuable," may pass for the comparative, because it 
conveys the same sentiment as, " Virtue is more valuable 
than every other acquirement." 

We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the read- 
er must be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the 
equivalent sentence, implies affirmation ; and that one 
phrase may, in sense, be equivalent to another, though 
Its grammatical nature is essentially different. 

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. 
Section 2. Of Number and Person. 

Verbs have two numbers the Singular and the Plural : 
as, " I run, we run," &c. 

In each number there are three persons ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I love. We love. 

Second Person Thou lovest. Ye or you love, 

Third Person. He loves. They love. 

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to 
express, or agree with, different persons of the same num- 
ber : as, " I love, thou lovest; he loveth, or loves; 99 and 
also to express different numbers of the same person : as, 
il thou lovest. ye love ; he loveth, they love. 9 ' In the plural 
number of the verb, there is no variation of ending to ex- 
press the different persons ; and the verb, in the three per* 



ETYMOLOGY, 67 

sons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. 
Yet this scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for 
all the purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from 
it; the verb being always attended, either with the noun 
expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the 
pronoun representing it. For this reason, the plural ter- 
mination in en, they loven y they weren, formerly in use, was 
laid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. 

Section 3. Of Moods and Participles. 

Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, show- 
ing the manner in which the being, action, or passion 3 
is represented. 

The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly explain- 
ed to the scholar, by observing, that it consists in the 
change which the verb undergoes, to signify various inten- 
tions of the mind, and various modifications and circum- 
stances of action : which explanation, if compared with the 
following account and uses of the different moods, will be 
found to agree with and illustrate them. 

There are five moods of verbs, the indicative, the 
imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and 
the infinitive. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing : as, u He loves, he is loved ;" or it asks a ques- 
tion : as, " Does he love ?" " Is he loved V* 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, ex- 
horting, entreating, or permitting : as, u Depart thou ; 
mind ye ; let us stay; go in peace. 3 ' 

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation 
of command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite na 
ture, even in the humblest supplications of an inferior be- 
ing to one who is infinitely his superior : as, " Give us 
this day our daily bread ; and forgive us our trespasses/* 

The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, 
power, will, or obligation : as " It may rain ; he may 
go or stay, I can ride; he would walk ; they should 
learn." 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a 
condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is pre- 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb : as, " I will respect him, 
though he chide me ;" u Were he good, he would be 
happy ;" that is, a if he were good"-— See note 8 to 
Rule 19. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general 
and unlimited manner, without any distinction of num- 
ber or person ; as, u to act, to speak, to be feared." 

The participle is a certain form of the verb, and de- 
rives its name from its participating, not only of the 
properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective : 
as, " I am desirous of knoiving htm ;" "admired and 
applauded, he became vain ;" " Having finished his 
work, he submitted it," &c. 

There are three participles, the Present or Active, 
the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect : 
as, " loving, loved, having loved." — See p. 94. 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we 
have represented the present participle, as, active ; and the 
past, as passive : but they are not uniformly so : the pre- 
sent is sometimes passive : and the past is frequently ac- 
tive* Thus, "the youth ivas consuming by a slow mala- 
dy " "The Indian was burning by the' cruelty of his 
enemies ;" appear to be instances of the present participle 
being used passively. « He has instructed me ;" " I have 
gratefully repaid his kindness ;" are examples of the past 
participle being applied in an active sense. We may also 
observe, that the present participle is sometimes associ- 
ated with the past and future tenses of the verb; and the 
past participle connected with the present and future 
tenses. — The most unexceptionable distinction which 
grammarians make between the participles, is, that the one 
points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state, 
denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion of 
it Thus the present participle signifies imperfect action, 
cr action begun and not ended : as, •* I am writing a let* 
ter." The past participle signifies action perfected, or 
finished: as, "I have written a letter;" " The letter is 
<tvfj££en.* f * 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect \ 
Avhen it is joined to the verbVo be, or understood with it, it is denominated 
passive. 



ETYMOLOGY, 69 

The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by the 
former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's de- 
noting only a quality. The phrases, " loving to give as 
well as to receive,'* " moving in haste," "heated with li- 
quor," contain participles giving the idea of time; but the 
epithets contained in the expressions, " a loving child,'" 
" a moving spectacle," u a heated imagination," mark sim- 
ply the qualities referred to, without any regard to time ; 
and may properly be called participial adjectives. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they 
also signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns in the same manner as verbs do ; and therefore should 
be comprehended in the general name of verbs. That 
they are mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our defini- 
tion of a verb be admitted : for they signify being, doing 5 
or suffering, with the designation of time superadded. But 
if the essence of the verb be made to consist in affirma- 
tion or assertion, not only the participle will be excluded 
from its place in the verb, but the infinitive itself also; 
which certain ancient grammarians of great authority 
held to be alone the genuine verb, simple and uncon- 
nected with persons and circumstances. 

The following phrases, even when considered in them- 
selves show that participles include the idea of time ; 
"The letter being written, or having been written ;" 
ci Charles being writing, having written, or having been 
writing" But when arranged in an entire sentence, 
which they must be to make a complete sense, they show 
it still more evidently : as, " Charles having writte?i the 
letter, sealed and despatched it." — The participle does 
indeed associate with different tenses of the verb: as, 
" I am writing," "I was writing," "I shall be writings" 
but this forms no just objection to its denoting time. If 
the time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, 
far from disproving, supports our position. f See observa 
tions under Rule 13 of Syntax. 

Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, 
and are used as such, as in the following instances : " The 

f From the very nature of time 3 an action may he present noxv, it may 
have been present formerly, or it may be present at some futute period— - 
yet who ever supposed^ that the present of the indicative denotes no time ? 

Encyclopedia .Britannica* 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

begimiing ;" " a good tin ders t anding ;"* excellent writing ;" 
" The chancellor's being attached to the king secured his 
crown :*' M The general's having failed in this enterprise 
occasioned his disgrace ;" u John's having been writing a 
long time had wearied him." 

That the words in italics of the three latter examples* 
perform the oflice of substantives, and may be considered 
as such, will be evident, if we reflect, that the first of 
them has exactly the same meaning and construction as, 
u The chancellor's attachment to the king secured his 
crown ;" and that the other examples will bear a similar 
construction. The words, being attached, govern the word 
chancellor's in the possessive case f in the one instance, as 
clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the other ; 
and it is only substantives, or words and phrases which 
operate as substantives, that govern the genitive or pos- 
sessive case. 

The following sentence is not precisely the same as the 
above, either in sense or construction* though, except the 
genitive case, the words are the same ; " The chancel- 
lor being attached to the king, secured his crown." In 
the former, the words, being attached, form the nomina- 
tive case to the verb, and are stated as the cause of the 
effect ; in the latter, they are not the nominative case, 
and make only a circumstance to chancellor* which is the 
proper nominative. It may be not improper to add ano- 
ther form of this sentence, by which the learner may 
better understand the peculiar nature and form of each of 
these modes of expression : " the chancellor being attach- 
ed to the king, his crown was secured." This constitutes 
what is properly called, the Case Absolute. 

Section 4. Reinarks on the Potential Mood. 

That the Potential Mood should be separated from the 
subjunctive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion 
which are produced by their being blended together, and 
from the distinct nature of the two moods ; the former of 
which may be expressed without any condition, supposi- 
tion, &c. as will appear from the following instances. 
i9 They might have done better;" <k We may always act 
uprightly ;" " He was generous, and would not take re- 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

venge; " "We should resist the allurements of vice;" 
« I could formerly indulge myself in things, of which I 
cannot now think but with pain." 

Some grammarians have supposed tiat the Potential 
Mood, as distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coin- 
cides with the Indicative. But as the latter iC simply in- 
dicates or declares a thing," it is manifest that the for- 
mer, which modifies the declaration, and introduces an 
idea materially distinct from it, must be considerably 
different, " I can walk," " I should walk," appear to be 
so essentially distinct from the simplicity of, " I walk," 
4i I walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction or 
moods The Imperative and Infinitive Moods, which are 
allowed to retain their rank, do not appear to contain such 
strong marks of discrimination from the Indicative, as are 
found in the Potential Mood. 

There are other writers on this subject, who exclude 
Uie Potential Mood from their division, because it is form- 
ed, not by varying the principal verb, but by means of the 
auxiliary verbs may, can, might, could, would, Sec. : but 
if we recollect* that moods are used " to signify various 
intentions of the mind, and various modifications and cir- 
cumstances of action," we shall perceive that those auxi- 
liaries, far from interfering with this design, do, in the 
clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the reason 
alleged by these writers, the greater part of the Indica- 
tive Mood must also be excluded; as but a small part of 
it is conjugated without auxiliaries. The Subjunctive too 
will fare no better ; since it so nearly resembles the Indi- 
cative, and is formed by means of conjunctions, express- 
ed or understood, which do not more effectually show the 
varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do 
which are used to form the Potential Mood. 

Some writers have given our moods a much greater ex- 
tent than we have assigned to them. They assert that the 
English language may be said, without any great impro- 
priety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs; 
and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the com- 
pound expression which they help to form, point out those 
various dispositions and actions, which, in other languages, 
are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the 
moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

conjugation or variation of verbs, in the English language? 
is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. 
We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this cir- 
cumstance ; and do that by their assistance, which has been 
done in the learned languages, (a few instances to the 
contrary excepted,) in another manner, namely, by vary- 
ing the form of the verb itself. At the same time it is 
necessary to set proper bounds to this business, so as not 
to occasion obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be 
simple and perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a 
separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and introducing 
moods Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Pre- 
eative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously 
distinct ; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold 
and display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to 
be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to answer all 
the purposes for which moods were introduced. 

From grammarians who form their ideas, and make 
their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, 
on the principles and construction of languages, which, 
in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, 
but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect 
grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor 
perfectly consistent and which will tend more to perplex 
than inform the learner. See pages 76—78. 94—96 
99—103. 182—184 

Section 5. Of the Tenses. 

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to 
admit only of the present, past, and future ; but to 
mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six 
variations, viz. the present, the imperfect, the per- 
fect, the pluperfect, and the first and second fu- 
ture tenses. 

The Preseat Tense represents an action or event, 
as passing at the time in which it is mentioned; as, 
" I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; I fear." 

Th% present tense likewise expresses a character, qua- 
lity, &c. at present existing : as, « He is an able man ;" 
" She is at\ amiable woman." It is also used in speaking 
of actions continued^ with occasional intermission, to the 



ETYMOLOGY. 76 

present time: as, "He frequently rides;" "He walks 
out every morning ;" "He goes into the country every 
summer." We sometimes apply this tense ven to per- 
sons long since dead : as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes 
well ;" " Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, be- 
fore, after, as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out 
ihe relative time of a future action : as, " When he ar- 
rives he will hear the news ;" ,' He will hear the news 
before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or at farthest 3 
soon after he arrives ;" " The more she improves, the 
more amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is some- 
times substituted for the imperfect tense : as, " He enters 
the te ritory of the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights and 
conquors. takes an immense booty, which he divides 
amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty 
triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event* 
either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished 
at a certain time past : as, " I loved her for her modes- 
ty and virtue;" " They were travelling post when he 
met them." 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but 
also conveys an illusion to the present time : as, " I have 
finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was 
recommended to me." 

In the former example* it is signified that the finishing 
on the letter, though past, was at a period immediately, 
or very nearly, preceding the present time. In the lat- 
ter instance, it is uncertain whether the person mention- 
ed was seen by the speaker a long or short time before, 
The meaning is, " I have seen him some time in the 
course of a period which includes, or eomes to, the pre- 
sent time." When the particular time of any occurrence 
is specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is not 
used : for it would be improper to say, " I have seen him 
yesterday ;" or, " I have finished my work last week." 
In these cases the imperfect is necessary: as,," I saw 
him yesterday ;" " I finished my work last week." But 
when we speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happen 

G 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing or not happening in the day, year or age, in which 
we mention it, the perfect must be employed : as, " I 
have been there this morning ;" " I have travelled much 
this year :" a We have escaped many dangers through 
life." In referring, however, to such a division of the 
day as is past before the time of our speaking, we use 
the imperfect : as, a They came home early this morn- 
ing ;" " Re was with them as three o'clock this afternoon. 55 
The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote 
a thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a 
manner, that there is still actually remaining some part 
of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing- 
has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing 
or action past, in such a manner that nothing remains of 
that time in which it was done. If we speak of the pre- 
sent century* we say, " Philosophers have made great 
discoveries in the present century: " but we speak of 
the last century, we say, " Philosophers made great dis- 
coveries in the last century." "He has beenmxich afflict- 
ed this year f* "I have this week read the kings procla- 
mation ;" " I have heard great news this morning :" In 
these instances, u He has been" " I have read" and 
^ heard" denote things that are past ; but they occurred 
in this year, in this week, and to day ; and still there re- 
mains a part of this year, week, and day ; whereof I 
speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever 
the action is connected with the present time, by the ac- 
tual existence, either of the author, or of the work, 
though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; 
but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it 
cannot be used. We may say, " Cicero has written ora- 
tions ;" but we cannot say, " Cicero has written poems;" 
because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. 
Speaking of priests in general, we may say, They have 
in all ages claimed great powers ;" because the general 
order of the priesthood still exists : but if we speak of 
the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which 
does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We can- 
not say, " The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;" 
but must say, 8i The Druid priests claimed great powers ;" 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

because that order is now totally extinct. See Pickbouun 
on the English Verb. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only 
as past, but also as prior to some other point of time 
specified in the sentence ; as, tc I had finished my letter 
before he arrived." 

The first Future Tense represents the action as yet 
to come, either with or without respect to the precise 
time : as, " The sun will rise to morrow ;" " I shall 
see them again." 

The Second Future intimates that the action will 
be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another 
future action or event : as, " I shall have dined at one 
o'clock;" "The two house's will have finished their 
business, when the king comes to prorogue them."* 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the 
event being spoken of under a condition or supposition, or 
in the form of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and con- 
tingent, the verb itself in the present, and the auxiliary 
both of the present and past imperfect times, often carry 
with them somewhat of a future sense : as, " If he come 
to-morrow, I may speak to him ;" " If he should, or 
would come to-morrow, I might, would, could, or should 
speak to him." Observe, also, that the auxiliary should 
and would, in the imperfect times, are- used to express 
the present and future as well as the past : as, " It is my 
desire, that he should, or would, come now, or to-mor- 
row ;" as well as, H It was my desire, that he should or 
would come yesterday." So that in this mood the precise 
time of the verb is very much determined by the nature 
and drift of the sentence. 

The present, past, and future tenses, may be used 
either definitely , or indefinitely > both with respect to time 
and action. When they denote customs or habits, and not 
individual acts, they are applied indefinitely : as, " Vir- 
tue promotes happiness ;" c * The old Romans governed by 
benefits more than by fear ;" «* I shall hereafter employ 
my time more usefully. " In these examples, the words, 

* See an account of the simple and compound tenses, at page 91. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

promotes, governed, and shall employ, are used indefinitely? 
both in regard to action and time; for they are not con- 
fined to individual actions, nor to any precise points of 
present, past, or future time. When they are applied 
to signify particular actions, and to ascertain the precise 
points of time to which they are confined, they are used 
definitely ; as in the following instances. " My brother 
is writing;* « He built the house last summer, but did 
not inhabit it till yesterday.'* " He will write another 
letter to morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete 
or perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases ? 
"lam writing," " I was writing," " I shall be writing,'" 
imperfect, unfinished actions are signified. But the fol- 
lowing examples, M I wrote," " I have written," " I had 
written," *' I shall have written," all denote complete per- 
fect action. 

From the preceding representation of the different 
tenses, it appears, that each of them has its distinct and 
peculiar province ; and that though some of them may 
sometimes be used promiscuously, or substituted one for 
another, in cases where great accuracy is not required, 
yet there is a real and essential difference in their mean* 
ing. — It is also evident that the English language contains 
the six tenses which we have enumerated. Grammarians 
who limit the number to two, or at most to three, name- 
ly, the present, the imperfect, and the future, do not reflect 
that the English verb is mostly composed of principal and 
auxiliary ; and that these several parts constitute one verb* 
Either the English language has no regular future tense s 
or its future is composed of the auxiliary and the principal 
verb. If the latter be admitted, then the auxiliary and 
principal united, constitute a tense, in one instance ; and, 
from reason and analogy, may doubtless do so, in others, 
in which minuter divisions of time are necessary, or use* 
ful. What reason can be assigned for not considering this 
case as other cases, in which a whole is regarded as com- 
posed of several parts, or of principal and adjuncts ? 
There is nothing heterogeneous in the parts: and prece* 
dent, analogy, utility? and even necessity, authorize the 
union . 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

In support of this opinion, we have the authority of 
eminent grammarians; in particular, that of Dr. Beattie. 
" Some writers," says the doctor, " will not allow any 
thing to be a tense, but what in one inflected word, ex- 
presses an affirmation with time ; for that those parts of 
the verb are not properly called tenses, which assume 
that appearance, by means of auxiliary words. At this 
rate, we should have, in English, two tenses only, the 
present and the past in the active verb, and in the passive 
no tenses at all. But this is a needless nicety ; and, if 
adopted, would introduce confusion into the grammatical 
art. If amaveram be a tense, why should not amatus 
fueram ? If I heard be a tense, I did hear, I have heard, 
and i* shall hear, must be equally entitled to that appella- 
tion." 

The proper form of a tense, in the Greek and Latin 
tongues is certainly that which it has in the grammars of 
those languages. But in the Greek and Latin grammars* 
we uniformly find, that some of the tenses are formed by 
variations of the principal verb; and others, by the ad- 
dition of a helping verb. It is, therefore, indisputable, 
that the principal verb, or rather its participle, and an 
auxiliary, constitute a regular tense in the Greek and 
Latin languages. This point being established, we may, 
doubtless, apply it to English verbs ; and extend the prin- 
ciple as far as convenience, and the idiom of our language 
require. 

If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a par- 
ticiple and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the 
verb is to be conjugated accordingly, the English noun 
and pronoun ought to be declined at large, with articles 
and prepositions ; we must object to the inference. Such 
a mode of declension is not adapted to our language. 
This we think has been already proved.* It is also con- 
fessedly inapplicable to the learned languages. Where 
then is the grammatical inconsistency, or the want of con- 
formity to the principles of analogy, in making some ten- 
ses of the English verb to consist of principal and auxiliary ; 
and the cases of English nouns, chiefly in their termina- 
tion ? The argument from analogy, instead of militating 

* See page 50. 
G2 



7& ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

against us, appears to confirm and establish our position. 
See pages 70— 72.— 94— 96. 98—102—183—184. 

We shall close these remarks on the tenses, with a few 
observations extracted from the Encyclopaedia Britan- 
nica. They are worth the student's attention, as a part 
of them applies, not only to our views of the tenses, but 
to many other parts of the work. — u Harris (by way of 
hypothesis) has enumerated no fewer than twelve tenses. 
Of this enumeration we can by no means approve : for 5 
without entering into a minute examination of it, nothing 
can be more obvious, than that his incefitive present, *« I 
am going to write," is a future tense ; and his completive 
present, " I have written a past tense. But, as was be- 
fore observed of the classification of words, we cannot 
help being of opinion, that, to take the tenses as they are 
commonly received, and endeavour to ascertain their na- 
ture and their differences, is a much more useful exer- 
cise, as well as more proper for a work of this kind, than 
to raise, as might easily be raised, new theories on the 
subject."* 

Section 6. The Conjugation of the auxiliary verbs 
to have and to be. 

The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combina- 
tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons :> 
moods, and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the active 
voice ; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. 

The auxiliary and active verb to have, is conjugated 
in the following manner. 

* The following criticism affords an additional support to the author's 
system of the tenses, &c. 

" Under the head of Etymology, the author of this grammar judiciously 
adheres to the natural simplicity of the English language without embar- 
rassing the learner with distinctions peculiar to the Latin tongue. The dif- 
jocult subject of the Tenses, is cleariy explained ; and with less encunv 
hrance of technical phraseology, than in most other grammars." 

Analytical Review. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

TO HAVE. 

Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural . 

1. Pers. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Pers. Thou hast* 2. Ye or you have- 

3. Pers. He, she, or ito 3 Th haye 
hath or has. 5 ° # y 

Imperfect Tense.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. Thou hadst. 2. Ye or you had. 

3. He, Sec. had. 3. They had. 

Perfect Tense.* 

, Singular. Plural. 

1. I have had. 1. We have had, 

2. Thou hast had. 2. Ye or you have had. 

3. He has had. 3. They have had* 

Plujierfect Tense.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had had. 1. We had had. 

2. Thou hadst had. 2. Ye or you had had* 

3. He had had. 3. They had had. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have, 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have, 

* The terms which we have adopted, to designate the three past 
tenses, may not be exactly significant of their nature and distinctions. 
But as they are used by grammarians in general, and have an esta- 
blished authority ; and, especially, as the meaning attached to each 
of them, and their different significations, have been carefully explain- 
ed ; we presume that no solid objection can be made to the use of 
terms so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. See page 78 
and 80. We are supported in these sentiments, by the authority ot 
Dr. Johnson. See the first note in his " Grammar of the English 
Tongue," prefixed to his dictionary. If, however, any teachers should 
think it warrantable to change the established names, they cannot 
perhaps find any more appropriate, than the terms first preterit, second 
preterit, arid third preterit. — See the Octavo Grammar. 



BO ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Second Future Tense* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 





Imperative Mood, 


Singular. 

i. Let me have. 


Plural. 

1. Let us have. 


2* Have, or have 


thou, or 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye 


do thou have. 


or you have. 


3. Let him have. 


3. Let them have.* 



The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three 
persons. The command is always addressed to the second 
person, not to the first or third. For when we say, " Let 
me have," " Let him, or let them have," the meaning 
and construction are, do thou, or do ye^ let me, him, or 
them have. In philosophical strictness, both number and 
person might be entirely excluded from every verb. 
They are, in fact, the properties of substantives, not a 
part of the essence of a verb. Even the name of the 
imfierative mood, does not always correspond to its nature : 
for it sometimes petitions as well as commands. But, with 
respect to all these points, ihe practice of our gramma- 
rians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the lan- 
guages? ancient and modern, which our youth have to 
study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of inno- 
vation, to deviate from the established terms and arrange- 
ments. See the advertisement at the end of the Introduc- 
tion, page 7 ; and the quotation from the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, page 7$. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2. Thou may st or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 

* If such sentences should be rigorously examined, the Imperative 
will appear to consist merely in the word let. See Parsing, p. 203, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



81 



Singular. 

. I might could, would, or 

should have. 
. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst have. 
. He might, could, would 

or should have. 



Imperfect Tense. 



2 



Plural. 

We might, could, would, 
or should have. 

Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should have. 
. They might, could, would, 
or should have. 



Singular. 

1. I may or can have had. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 
had. 

3. He may or can have had. 



Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1, 

2 



We may or can have had. 
Ye or you may or can 
have had. 
They may or can have had, 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, 
should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, 
wouldst, or shouldst have 
had. 

3r He might, could, would, 
or should have had. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 



would or 1. We might, could, would 3 

or should have had. 
couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should have 
had. 

They might, could, would* 
or should have had.* 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Singular. 

1. If I have. 

2. If thou have.f 

3. If he have,t 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we have. 

2. If ye or you have, 

3. If they have. 



The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are in 
every respect, similar to the correspondent tenses of the 

* Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, promise , 
may be considered as well as their relations should and -would, as be- 
belonging to the potential mood. But as they generally signify fu- 
turity, they have been appropriated, as helping verbs, to the forma- 
tion of the future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods. 

f Grammarians, in general, conjugate the present of the auxiliary, 
in this manner. But we presume, that this is the form of a verb* 
considered as a principal, not as an auxiliary verb. See page 182 
Note 5. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indicative mood :* with the addition to the verb, of a con* 
junction, expressed or implied, denoting a condition, mo- 
tive, wish, supposition, Sec. It will be proper to direct 
the learner to repeat ail the tenses of this mood, with a 
conjunction prefixed to each of them. See, on this sub- 
ject, the observation at page 96; and the notes on the nine- 
teenth rule of syntax. 

Infinitive Mood. 

present. To have. perfect. To have had. 

Participles. 
present or active. Having. 
pefrect. Had. 

compound perfect. Having had. 

As the subjunctive mood, in English has no variation^ 
in the form of a verb, from the indicative, (except in the 
present tense, and the second future tense, of verbs gene- 
rally, and the present and imperfect tenses of the verb 
to be^) it would be superfluous to conjugate it in this work, 
through every tense. But all the other moods and tenses 
of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are 
conjugated at large, that the learners may have no doubts 
or misapprehensions respecting their particular forms. 
They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, 
and young persons especially, are much more readily and 
effectually instructed, by seeing the parts of a subject so 
essential as the verb, unfolded and spread before them, 
in all their varieties, than by being generally and curso- 
rily informed of the manner in which they may be exhi- 
bited. The time employed by the scholars, in conse- 
quence of this display of the verbs, is of small moment* 
compared with the advantages which they will probably de- 
rive from the plan. 

It may not, however, be generally proper for young 
persons beginning the study of grammar, to commit to 
memory all the tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses, 
siamely, the present and the imperfect ; , together with the 

* Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, 
of the second future tense, require the auxiliary shalt, shall, instead 
of wilt -will. Thus, " He will have completed the work by midsum- 
mer," is the indicative form : but the subjunctive is, ' If he shaU 
have completed the work by midsummer." 






VMOLOGY. 83 

first future tense, should, in the first instance, be commit 
ted to memory, and the rest carefully perused and ex 
rdained, the business will not be tedious to the scholars, 
and their progress will be rendered mors obvious and 
pleasing. The general view of the subject, thus acquir- 
ed and impressed, may afterwards be extended with ease 
and advantage. 

It appears to be proper for the information of the 
learners, to make a few observations in this place, on 
some of the tenses, &c, The first is, that, in the poten- 
tial mood, some grammarians confound the present with 
the imperfect tense ; and the perfect with the pluperfect. 
But that they are really distinct, and have an appropriate 
reference to time, correspondent to the definitions of 
those tenses, will appear from a few examples : " I wish- 
ed him to stay, bui he would not ; M " I could not accom- 
plish the business in time ;" " It was my direction that 
he should submit ;" " He was ill, but I thought he might 
live ;" u I may have misunderstood him ;" il He cannot have 
deceived me ;" " He might have finished the work sooner, 
but he could not have done it better." — It must, however. 
be admitted, that, on some occasions, the auxiliaries, might, 
couid, would, and should, refer also to present and to future 
time. See page 75. 

The next remark is, that the auxiliary will, in the first 
person singular and plural of the second future tense; 
and the auxiliary shall, in the second and third persons of 
that tense, in the indicative mood, appear to be incor- 
rectly applied. The impropriety of such associations 
may be inferred from a few examples : " I mil have had 
previous notice, whenever the event happens ;" " Thou 
shall have served thy apprenticeship before the end of 
the year;" M He shall have completed bis business when 
the messenger arrives." " I shall have had ; thou wilt 
have served ; he will have completed," &c. would have been 
correct and applicable. The peculiar import of these auxi- 
liaries, as explained in p^ge 90, under section 7, seems to 
account for their impropriety in the applications just men- 
tioned. 

Some writers on Grammar object to the propriety of ad- 
mitting the second future, in b^th the indicative and sub- 
junctive moods : but that this tense is applicable to both 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



moods, will be manifest from the following examples, 
*' John will have earned his wages the next new-year's 
day, 3 ' is a simple declaration, and therefore in the indi- 
cative mood : " If he shall have finished his work when 
the bell rings, lie will be entitled to the reward," is con- 
ditional and contingent, and is therefore in the subjunctive 
mood. 

We shall conclude these detached observations, with 
one remark which may be useful to the young scholar, 
namely, that as the indicative mood is converted into the 
subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, motive, 
wish, supposition, Sec. being superadded to it ; so the 
potential mood may, in like manner be turned into the 
subjunctive 5 as will be seen in the following examples: 
"If I could deceive him, I should abhor it;" "Though 
he should increase in wealth, he would not be charita- 
ble ;" " Even in prosperity he would gain no esteem, unless 
he should conduct himself better." 

The auxiliary and neuter verb To be, is conjugated 
as follows : 



TO BE. 

Indicative Mood. 



Singular. 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He, she, or it is. 



Present Tense. 

, Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. Ye or you are, 

3. They are. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Im/ierfect Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. Ye or you were, 

3. They were. 



Perfect Tense* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. l. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. Ye or you have been. 

3. He hath, or has been, 3. They have been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

Plufierfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

, I had been. 1. We had been. 

:. Thou hadst been, 2. Ye or you had been, 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular . Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3# They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

!. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been 

3, He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 

. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be 

. Let him be. 3. Let them be, 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

► Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be 

, He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Imfierfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
should be. or should be. 

Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or shouldst be. would or should be. 

He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would ? 
or should be. or should be. 

H 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



: 



Singular. 

I may or can have been. 
Thou mayst or canst have 

been. 
He may or can have 

been. 



Perfect Tense* 

Plural, 



1. We may or can have been 

2. Ye or you may or can 
have been. 

3 They may or can have 
been. 



Pluperfect 1'ense* 



Singular. 

I might, could, would, or 

should have been. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shduldst have 

been* 

He might* could, would^ 

or should have been. 



Plural. 

1. We might, could, would, 
or should have been. 

2. Ye or you, might 5 could, 
wouldj or should have, 
been. 

3. They might, could, would, 
or should have been. 



Singular* 

1 If I be. 

2. If thou be 

3. If he be, 



Subjunctive Mood, 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 



1. If we be. 

2. If ye or you be, 

3. If they be. 



Imfierfect Tense, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If 1 were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, simi- 
lar ot the correspondent tenses of the Indicative mood. See 
pages 82. 94 5 95, and the notes Under the nineteenth rule 
^f Syntax. 



Present Tense, 



Infinitive Mood* 
To be. Perfect, To have been, 



Present, Being. 
Compound Perfect, 



Participles. 

Perfect* Been, 
Having been'c 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

Section 7 '. The Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their aim- 
file form ; with observations on their fie culiar nature ana 
force. 

The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary 
verbs, to have and to be, could not be conjugated through 
all the moods and tenses, without the help of other auxiliary 
verbs ; namely, may, can, will, shall, and their variations 
That auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, and unassisted 
by others, are of a very limited extent; and that they arc 
chiefly useful, in the aid which they afford in conjugating 
the principal verbs ; will clearly appear to the scholar, b\ 
a distinct conjugation of each of them, uncombtned with 
any other. They are exhibited for his inspection : not to 
be committed to memory. 

TO HAVE. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or has 

Phir. 1. We have. 2. Ye or you have. -3. They have. 

Imfierfect Tense. 
Sing. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 

Plur. l. We had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They had. 

Perfect. I have had, &c. Pluperfect. I had had, &c. 







Participles. 






Present, 


Having. Perfect, 

TO BE. 

Present Tense. 


Had. 


Sing, 


1. I am. 


2. Thou art 


3. He is. 


Plur. 


1. We are 


2. Ye or you are. 
Imfierfect Tense. 


3. They are. 


Sing. 


1. I was. 


2. Thou wast. 


3. He was. 



Plur. 1. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. 

Participles. 
Present. Being. Perfect, Been. 



£8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

SHALL. 

Present Tense. 
8i?ig. 1. I shall.* 2. Thou shalt. 3. He shall. 
Plur. 1. We shall. 2. Ye or you shall. 3. They shall. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. 1. I should. 2. Thou shouldst. 3. He should. 
Plur. 1. We should2. Ye or you should.3. They should 

WILL. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. I. I will. 2. Thou wilt. 3. He will. 

Plur. J. We .will. 2. Ye or you will. 3. They will. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. 1. I would 2. Thou wouldst. 3. He would. 
JP/zm 1. We would 2. Ye or you would.3. They would, 

MAY. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. 1. I may. 2. Thou mayst 3. He may. 
Plur. 1. We may. 2. Ye or you may. 3. They may . 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. 1. I might. 2. Thou mightst. 3. He might. 
Plur. 1. We might. 2. Ye or you might. 3. They might, 

cajst. 

Present Tense, 
Sing. i. I can. 2. Thou canst. 3. He can. 
Plur. 1. We can. 2. Ye or you can. 3. They can. 

Imperfect Tense* 
Sing. 1. I could. 2. Thou couldst.. 3. He could. 
Plur. i. We could. 2. Ye or you could. 3. They could. 

* Shall is here properly used in the present tense, having the same- 
analogy to should that can has to could, may % to wight t and will ta 
would, 



1 TYPOLOGY. 8t 

TO DO. 

Present Tense, 
^ing. 1. I do. 2. Thou dost. 3. He doth or does. 

Plur. 1. We do. 2. Ye or you do. 3. They do. 

Imp erfe c t Tens e . 
iff. i. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. 
Plur. 1. We did. 2. Ye or you did. 3. They did. 

Participles. 
Present. Doing. Perfect. Done. 

The verbs, have, be, will, and do, when they are uncon 
nected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, 
are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs: as, |C We have 
enough;" "I am grateful ;" "He wills it to be so;" 
lt They do as they please." In this view, they also have 
their auxiliaries : as, 4; I shall have enough i" " I mtl be 
grateful," &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will ap- 
pear from the following account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with 
greater energy and positiveness ; as, " I do speak truth-;" 
U I did respect him ;" " Here am I, for thou didst call me." 
They are of great use in negative sentences : as, " I do 
not fear;" "I did not write." They are almost univer- 
sally employed in asking questions: as, '• Does he learn ?" 
<'* Did he not write :" They sometimes also supply the 
place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in 
the same, or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as 5 
4 You attend not to your studies as he does ,•" (i. e. as he 
attends, Sec.) " I shall come if I can ; but if I do not. 
please to excuse me ;" (i. e. if I come not.) 

Let not only expresses permission, but entreating, ex- 
horting, commanding: as, " Let us know the truth;" 
:4 Let me die the death of the righteous;" " Let not thy 
heart be too much elated with success;" u Let thy in- 
clination submit to thy duty." 

May and ?night express the possibility or liberty of doing 
a thing ; can and could y the power : as, " It may rain ;" * I 
may write or read ;" « He might have improved more, 

h 2 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

than he has ;" " He can write much better than he could 
last year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes 
necessity ; as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we 
do speak, and me must not prevaricate. " 

Will) in the first person singular and plural, intimates 
resolution and promising ; in the second and third person, 
only foretels, % as " I will reward the good, and will pu- 
nish the wicked ;" " We will remember benefits, and be 
grateful ;" "Thou wilt, pr he will, repent of that folly ;" 
" You or they will have a pleasant walk " 

Shall) on the contrary, in the first person, simply fore- 
tels ; in the second and third persons, promises commands, 
or threatens : as, <( I shall go abroad; 5 ' "We shall dine 
at home ;" <4 Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land; 9 * 
"Ye shall do justice, and love mercy;" "They shall 
account for their misconduct." The following passage is 
not translated according to the distinct and proper mean- 
ings of the words shall and will : " Surely goodness and 
mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I will 
dwell in the house of the Lord for ever ;" it ought to be* 
" Will follow me," and " I shall dwell." — The foreigner, 
who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out : " I 
will be drowned, no body shall help me ;" made a sad mis- 
application of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verb' 
will and shalL must be understood of explicative senten 
ces ; for when the sentence is interrogative, just the re- 
verse, for the most part, takes place; thus, " I shall go ; 
you will go ;" express event only : but, " will you go ?" 
imports intention ; and, " shall I go ?" refers to the will 
of another. But. "He shall go," and "shall he go?" 
both imply will ; expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the 
meaning of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some 
alteration ; as the learners will readily perceive by a few 
examples : « He shall proceed," " If he shall proceed;" 
*'You shall consent," % If you shall consent." These 
auxiliaries are sometimes enterchanged, in the indicative 
and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of 
the auxiliary ; as, *< He will not return," " If he shall 



ETYMOLOGY. 



91 



not return ;" " He shall not return, 55 " If he will not re- 
turn." 

Mouldy primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should, 
obligation : but they both vary their import, and are often 
used to express a simple event. 

Section 8. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs Active are called Regular, when they farm 
iheir imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their 
perfect participle, by adding to the verb ed 9 or d only 
when the verb ends in e ; as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. Partieip. 

I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the follow- 
ing manner. 

TO LOVE. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I love.* 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He, she, or it loveth, 
or loves. 



Plural. 

1. We love. 

2. Ye or you love, 

3. They love. 



Singular. 

I loved. 
Thou lovedst. 
He loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We loved. 

2. Ye or you loved, 

3. Thev loved. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved. 

3. He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

* In the present and imperfect tenses, we use a different form of 
the verb, when we mean to express energy and positiveness : as, " I da 
love ; thou dost love ; he does love ; I did love ; thou didst love ; he did 
love," 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 

S. <He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love , 

3. He shall or will love. 3. The v shall or will love,. 



Second Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

T. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved 

8. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed 
of the principal, without an auxiliary verb : as, " I love, 
I loved." The compound tenses are such as cannot be 
formed without an auxiliary verb; as, "I have loved; I 
had loved ; I shall or will love ; I may love ; I may bt 
loved ; I may have been loved ;" Sec. These compounds 
are, however, to be considered as only different forms of the 
game verb. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 

2. Love, or love thou or do 2. Love, or love ye or you* 

thou love. or do ye love. 

3. Let him love. 3, Let them love. 

Potential Mood.. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you mayor can love 

3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



93 



Singular. 

, I might, could, would, or 

should love. 
Thou mightst, could st, 

wouldst, or shouldst love. 
, He might, could, would, 

or should love. 



Imjierfect Tense. 

Plural 



1. We might, could, would; 
or should love. 

2. Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should love. 

3. They might, could$ would 3 
or should love. 



Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 
loved. 

3. He may or can have lov- 
ed. 



Plural. 

1. We may or can have loved, 

2. Ye or you may or can have 
loved. 

3. They may or can have 
loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

, I might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 
, Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst have 

loved, 
. He might, could, would, 

or should have loved. 



Plural. 

. We might, could, would;, 
or should have loved. 

. Ye or you might, could ? 
would, or should have lov- 
ed. 

, They might, could, would, 
or should have loved. 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Singn lar. 

1. If I love. 

2. If thou love, 

3. If he love. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. If ye or you love, 

3. If they love. 



The remaining tenses of this mood, are, in general simi- 
lar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See 
page 82. and page 95. 

It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place* 
that though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, 
any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, 
may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed, The 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

instance given is sufficient to explain the subject : more 
would be tedious, and tend to embarrass the learner. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

Participles. 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Com fiound Perfect. Having loved. 

The active verb may be conjugated differently, by add- 
ing its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to 
be^ through all its moods and tenses; as, instead of "J teacrn 
thou teachest, he teaches," Sec. ; we may say, <* I am teach- 
ing, thou art teaching, he is teaching," &c. : and instead of 
a I taught," Sec. * 4 I was teaching," &c. and so on, through 
all the variations of the auxiliary. This mode of conju- 
gation, has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety : 
and contributes to the harmony and precision of the lan- 
guage. These forms of expression are adapted to particular 
acts, not to general habits, or affections of the mind. They 
are very frequently applied to neuter verbs; as, " I am mus- 
ing ; he is sleeping."* 

Some grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive 
termination^ to the persons of the principal verb, and to its 
auxiliaries, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood, 
But this is certainly contrary to the practice of good wri- 
ters, Johnson applies this termination to the present and 
perfect tenses only. Lowth restricts it entirely to the pre- 
sent tense ; and Priestly confines it to the present and im- 
perfect tenses. This difference of opinion amongst gram- 
marians of such eminence, may have contributed to that 
diversity of practice, so observable in the use of the sub- 
junctive mood. Uniformity in this point is highly desirable. 
It would materially assist both teachers and learners; <\nd 
would constitute a considerable improvement in our lan- 
guage. On this subjectj we adopt the opinion of Dr. 
Lowth ; and conceive we are fully warranted by his au- 

* As the participle, in this mood of conjugation, performs the of- 
lice of a verb, through all the moods and tenses ; and as it implies the 
idea of time, and governs the objective case of nouns and pronouns, 
in the same manner as verbs do ; is it not manifest, that it is a specie? 
or form of the verb, and that it cannot be properly considered ;.s a 
distinct part of speech. 



ETYMOLOGY, 95 

thority, and that of the most correct and elegant writers, in 
limiting the conjunctive termination of the principal verb, to 
the second and third persons singular of the firesent tense. 

Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, respect- 
ing the extent and variations of the subjunctive mood ; but 
a few of them have even doubted the existence of such a 
mood in the English language. These writers, assert, that 
the verb has no variation from the indicative ; and that a 
conjunction added to the verb, gives it no title to become 
a distinct mood ; or, at most, no better than it would have 3 
if any other particle were joined to it. To these observa- 
tions it may be replied ; 1st. It is evident, on inspection 
that, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense of the 
verb to £<?, and the second and third persons, in both num 
bers of the second future tense of all verbs ;* require a 
variation from the forms which those tenses have in the 
indicative mood. So much difference in the form of the 
verb, would warrant a correspondent distinction of mood ? 
though the remaining parts of the subjunctives were, in all 
respects, similar to those of the indicative. In other Ian 
guages, a principle of this nature has been admitted, both 
in the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of nouns § 
2. There appears to be as much propriety, in giving a 
conjunction the power of assisting to form the subjunctive 
mood, as there is in allowing the particle to to have an ef- 
fect in the formation of the infinitive mood.f 3d. A con- 
junction added to the verb, shows the manner of being, 
doing, or suffering, which other particles cannot show : 
they do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it, as con- 
junctions do. 4th. It may be said, " If contingency consti- 
tutes the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a phrase, 
and not a conjunction, that determines this mood." But a 
little reflection will show, that the contingent sense lies in 
the meaning and force of the conjunction, expressed or un- 
derstood. 

This subject may be farther illustrated by the following 
observations. — Moods have a foundation in nature* They 

* We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a constituent 
part of the verb to which it relates, that the principal and its auxiliary 
form but one verb. " { 

f Conjunctions have an influence on the mood of the followina verb, 

Dr. Beattie, 

Conjunctions have sometimes a government of moods. Dr. Lotvth , 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

show what is certain ; what is possible; what is condition 
al ; what is commanded. They express also other concep- 
tions and volitions ; all signifying the manner of being, do^ 
Ing, or suffering. But as it would tend to obscure, rather 
than elucidate the subject, if the moods were particularly 
enumerated, grammarians have very properly given them 
such combinations aud arrangements, as serve to explain the 
nature of this part of language, and to render the knowledge 
of it easily attainable. 

The grammars of some languages contain a greater 
number of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in 
different forms. The Greek and Roman tongues denote 
them, by particular variations in the verb itself. This 
form, however, was the effect of ingenuity and improve- 
ment : it is not essential to the nature of the subject. The 
moods may be as effectually designated by a plurality of 
words, as by a change in the appearance of a single word j 
because the same ideas are denoted, and the same ends ac- 
complished, by either manner of expression. 

On this ground, the moods of the English verb, as well as 
the tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by the 
principal verb itself, and partly by the assistance which that 
verb derives from other words. For further observations, re- 
lative to the views and sentiments here advanced, see pages 
71—72, 76—78. 100— 102.— 183— 184. 
PASSIVE, 

Verbs passive are called regular, when they form 
their perfect participle by the addition of d or ed^ to the 
verb ; as, from the verb " To love," is formed the pas- 
sive, " I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved," &c. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect 
participle to the auxiliary to he^ through ail its changes 
of number, person, mood, and tense, in the following 
manner. 

TO BE LOVED. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plu.al. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved, 
3 He is loved. 3.. They are loved. 



ETYMOLOGY 9? 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural, 

\l I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye or you were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved* 

3. He hath or has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been lovede 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved, 

First Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1 . I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved* 

2. Thou shalt or will be lov- 2. Ye or you shall or will be 
ed. loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved J 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been lov- 2. Ye or you will have been 
ed. loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved* 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do 
be loved. ye be loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved* 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Potential Mood 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loved, 

2. Thou mayst or canst be 2. Ye or you may or can be 
loved. loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved* 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
should be loved. or should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could>j 
wouldst, or shouldst be would, or should be lov- 
loved. ed. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should be loved. or should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I may or can have been 1. We may or can have been 
loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2, Ye or you may or can have 
have been loved. been loved. 

3. He may or can have been 3. They may or can have 
loved, been loved. 

Plufierfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or I. We might, could, would, 
should have been loved. on should have been lovedo 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 
been loved. been loved. 

3. He might, could would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should have been loved. or should have been loved 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye or you be loved, 

3. If he be loved. $• If they be lovecl 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

8. If thou wert loved, 2. If ye or you were loved, 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, 
similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood ; 
See pages 82. 95, and the notes under the nineteenth rule 
of Syntax. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. Perfect. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present. Being loved. 

Perfect or Passive. Loved. 

Comfiound Perfect. Having been loved. 

When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the prin- 
cipal verb, the auxiliary goes through all the variations 
of person and number, and the participle itself continues 
invariably the same. When there are two or more auxi- 
liaries joined to the participle, the first of them only is vari- 
ed according to person and number. The auxiliary must 
admits of no variation. 

The neuter verb is conjugated like the active ; but as it 
partakes somewhat of the nature of the passive, it admits, 
in many instances, of the passive form, retaining still the 
neuter signification ; as, " I am arrived ;" u I was gone ;" 
" I am grown." The auxiliary verb, am y was^ in this case, 
precisely defines the time of the action or event, but does 
not change the nature of it ; the passive form still express- 
ing, not properly a passion, but only a state or condition of 
being. 

Section 9. Observations on Passive Verbs. 

Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no Pas- 
sive Verbs in the English language, because we have no 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

verbs of this kind with a peculiar termination, all of them 
being formed by the different tenses of the auxiliary to be, 
joined to the passive participle of the verb. This is, how- 
ever, to mistake the true nature of the English verb ; and 
to regulate it, not on the principles of our own tongue, 
but on those of foreign languages. The conjugation, or 
the variation, of the English verb, to answer all the pur- 
poses of verbs, is accomplished by the means of auxiliaries ; 
and if it be alleged that we have no passive verbs, be- 
cause we cannot exhibit them without having recourse to 
helping verbs^ it may with equal truth be said, that we 
have no perfect, pluperfect or future tense, in the indicative 
or subjunctive mood ; since these, as well as some other 
parts of the verb active, are formed by auxiliaries. 

Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxi 
liary to conjugate some of their tenses ; namely, the former, 
in the preterit of the optative and subjunctive moods ; and 
the latter, in the perfect and pluperfect of 'he indicative, 
the perfect, pluperfect, and future, of the subjunctive 
mood, and the perfect of the infinitive. The deponent 
verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiliary to conjugate se- 
veral of their tenses. This statement abundantly proves 
that the conjugation of a verb in the learned languages 
does not consist solely in varying the form of the original 
verb. It proves that these languages, like our own lan- 
guage, sometimes conjugate with an auxiliary, and some- 
times without it. There is, indeed, a difference. What 
the learned languages require to be done, in some instan- 
ces, the peculiar genius of our own tongue oblige- us to 
do, in active verbs, principally, and in passive ones, univer- 
sally. In short, the variation of the verb, in Greek and 
Latin, is generally accomplished by prefixes, or termina- 
tions, added to the verb itself; in English, by the addition 
of auxiliaries. „ \ 

The English tongue is, in many respects, materially dif- 
ferent from the learned languages. It is, therefore, very 
possible to be mistaken ourselves, and to mislead and per- 
plex others, by anundistinguishing attachment to the prin- 
ciples and arrangements of the Greek and Latin Gramma- 
rians. Much of the confusion and perplexity) which we 
meet with in the writings of some English Grammarians, 
on the subject of verbs, moods, and conjugations^ has arisen 



ETYMOLOGY, 101 

from the misapplication of names. We are apt to think, 
that the old names must always be attached to the identi- 
cal forms and things to which they were anciently attach- 
ed But if we rectify this mistake, and properly adjust 
the names to the peculiar forms and nature of the things in 
our own language, we shall be clear and consistent in our 
ideas; and, consequently, better able to represent them 
intelligibly to those whom we wish to inform. 

The observations which we have made under this head, 
and on the subject of the moods in another place, will not 
apply to the declension and cases of nouns, so as to require 
us to adopt names and divisions similar to those of the 
Greek and Latin languages: for we should then have more 
cases than there are prepositions in connexion with the ar- 
ticle and noun : and after all, it would be a useless as well 
as an unwieldy apparatus ; since every English preposition 
points to and governs, ut one case, namely the objective ; 
which is also true with respect to our governing verbs and 
participles. But the conjugation of an English verb in form, 
through all its moods and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, 
so far from being useless or intricate, is a beautiful and 
regular display of it, and indispensably necessary to the 
language. 

Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same ground 
that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the 
English tongue in the forms for which we have contended* 
we should also admit the dual number, the paulo post future 
tense, the middle voice and all the moods and tenses, 
which are to be found in Greek and Latin. But this ob- 
jection though urged with much reliance on its weight, is 
not well founded If the arrangement of the moods, tenses. 
Sec. which we have adopted, is suited to the idiom of our 
tongue ; and the principle, on which they are adopted, is 
extended as far as use and convenience require ; where is 
the impropriety, in arresting our progress, and fixing our* 
forms at the point of utility? A principle may be warrant- 
ably adopted, and carried to a precise convenient extent, 
without subjecting its supporters to the charge of incon- 
sistency, for not pursuing it beyond the line of use and 
propriety. 

The importance of giving the ingenious student clear 
ai\d jtjst ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods and 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

tenses, will apologize for the extent of the Author's re- 
marks on these subjects, both here and elsewhere, and 
far his solicitude to simplify and explain them. — He thinks 
it has been proved, that the idiom of our tongue demands 
the arrangement he has given to *the English verb ; and 
that, though the learned languages, with respect to voices, 
moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed 
from the English tongue, yet in some respects they are 
so similar to it, as to warrant the principle which he has 
adopted. See pages 71—72. 76—78. 94—95. 183— 
184. 

Section 10". Of Irregular Verbs, 

Irregular Verbs are those which do not form their 
imperfect tense, and their perfect participle, by the 
addition of d or ed to the verb : as, 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Part 


I begin, 


I began, 


begun. 


I know, 


I knew, 


known. 



Irregular Verbs are of Various sorts. 

1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and 
perfect participle, the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part.. 

Cost, cost, cost. 

Put, put, put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect parti* 
ciple, the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

e, abode, abode, 

S sell, sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect parti» 
dple, different : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part* 

Atocj arose, arisen. 

ft blewj blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, " feed 
fed 5 iefc-ve. left ;" others by the termination en^ as, « fall, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



10: 



fell, fallen ;** others by the termination ght; as, " buy. 
bought ; teach, taught," 8cc. 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is pre- 
sumed, be found both comprehensive and accurate. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Par 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode* 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, r. 


awaked, 


Bear, to bring forth, bare, 


born. 


Bear, to carry , 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent* 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


besought. 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bouud. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, - 


broken. 


Breed, 


• bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought^ 


bought, 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, r» 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, to stick or } 




adhere, 


> REGULAR. 




Cleave, to sfilit, 


clove, or cleft^ 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clad, r, 


Come, 


came. 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Crow, 


crew, r, 


crowed. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Cut* 


CUts 


cut? 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Imperfect* 


Dare, to venture^ durst, 


Dare, r. 


to challenge. 


Deal, 


d- alt, r. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did, 


Draw, 


drew, 


Drive, 


drove, 


Drink, 


drank, 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r. 


Eat, 


eat, or ate, 


Fall, 


fell, 


Feed, 


fed, 


Feel, 


felt, 


Fight, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


Mee, 


fled, 


Fling, 


flung, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Forget, 


forgot, 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


Get, 


got, 


Gild, 


gilt, r. 


Gird, 


girt, ba 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grave, 


graved, 


Grind, 


ground, 


Grow, 


grew, 


Have, 


had, 


Hang, 


hung, r 9 


Hear, 


heard, 


Hew, 


hewed, 


Hide, 


hid, 


Hit, 


hit, 


Hold, 


held, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


Keep, 


kept, 


Knit, 


knit, Re 



Perf. pr Pj$3. Fait. 

dared* 

dealt, r, 

dug, R a 

done. 

drawn* 

driven, 

drunk. 

dwelt. 

eaten, 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought* 

found., 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forgotten^ forgot 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got.f 

gilt, r. 

girt, r 9 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r* 

ground. 

grown, 

had. 

hung, r. 

heard. 

hewn, r. 

hidden^ hieL 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knit, r, 



Guttm is nearly cbsciete. Its compound forgotten is still in good ns$ t 





ETYMOLOGY 


• 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Know, 


knew* 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie, to lie down 


lay, 


lain. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, p*, 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, k. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


ria% 


rid. 


Ride, 


rdde, 


rode, ridden.* 


Ring, 


rung, rang 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook. 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shapedj 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, r 8 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, r. 


shone, b, 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot, 



105 



* Ridden is nearlv obsolete. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, % 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat. 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, or slitted* 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, it. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, u. 


spilt, R, 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten.* 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 3. , 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode or strid, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck. 


struck or stricken 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven* 


Strow or strew, 


a *« A , ~a f strown, strowed 
strowed or strewed, j atre ,; ed . 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


swet, r. 


swet, r. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R> 


Swim, 


swum, swam* 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take^ 


took, 


taken. 


. 


* Spitten is nearly obsolete* 





ETYMOLOGY, 


107 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass, Part, 


Teach, 


taught. 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


thrive. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn, 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought or worked* 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found 
to be conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and 
those which admit of the regular form are marked with 
an r. There is a preference to be given to some of these, 
which custom and judgment must determine. Those pre- 
terits and participles which are first mentioned in the list, 
seem to be most eligible. The Compiler has net inserted 
such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing^or 
discourse, and which are improperly terminated by £, in- 
stead of ed : as learnt, spelt, spilt, 8tc. These should be 
avoided in every sort of composition. It is, however, 
proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into t, are 
unexceptionable ; and others, the only established forms 
of expression : as crept, gilt, &c. ; and lost, felt, slept, &c. 
These allowable and necessary contractions must there- 
fore be carefully distinguished by the learner, from those 
that are exceptionable. The words which are obsolete 
have also been omitted, that the learner might not be in- 
duced to mistake them for words in present use. Such 
are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, 
bounden, Sec. ; and swang, wrang, slank, strawed, gat 3 
brake, tare, ware, &c, 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Section i 1. Of Defective verbs ; and of the different ways 
in which verbs are conjugated. 

Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
some of their moods and tenses. 

The jirincifial of them are these. 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Can, could, — 

May, might, « . . . 

Shall, should. — — 

Will, would, 

Must, must, - 

Ought, ought, — — ■ 

— quoth, 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and 
past signification, appears from the following sentences : 
a I must own that I am to blame ;' 5 " He must have been 
mistaken ;" " Speaking things which they ought not ;'* 
" These ought ye to have done." 

In most languages there are some verbs which are de- 
fective with respect to persons. These are denominated 
impersonal verbs. They are used only in the third per- 
son, because they refer to a subject peculiarly appropria- 
ted to that person ; as, " It rains, it snows, it hails, it 
lightens, it thunders." But as the word impersonal im- 
plies a total absence of person, it is improperly applied 
to those verbs which have a person : and hence it is 
manifest, that there is no such thing in English, nor indeed, 
in any language, as a sort of verbs really impersonal. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, 
regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken to= 
gether, is about 4300. The number of irregular verbs, 
the defective included, is about 177.* 

Some Grammarians have thought that the English verbs, 
as well as those of the Greek, Latin, French, and other 
languages, might be classed into several conjugations ; 
and that the three different terminations of the participle 
might be the distinguishing characteristics. They have 
accordingly proposed three conjugations ; namely, the 

* The whole number of words, in the English language, is about 
iliirty-five thousand. 



ETYMOLOGY, 109 

first to consist of verbs, the participles of which end in ecL 
or its contraction t ; the second, of those ending in ght ; 
and the third of those in en. But as the verbs of the first 
conjugation, would so greatly exceed in number those of 
both the others, as may be seen by the preceding account 
of them ; and as those of the third conjugation are so va- 
rious in their form, and incapable of being reduced to one 
plain rule . it seems better in practice, as Dr. Lowth just- 
ly observes, to consider the first in ed as the only regular 
form, and the other as derivations from it; after the ex- 
ample of the Saxon and German Grammarians. 

Before we close the account of the verbs, it may afford 
instruction to the learners, co be informed, more particu- 
larly than they have been, that different nations have 
made use of different contrivances for marking the tenses 
and moods of their verbs. The Greeks and Latins dis- 
tinguish them, as well as the cases of their nouns adjec- 
tives, and participles, by varying the termination, or 
otherwise changing the form, *of the word ; retaining 
however, those radical letters, which prove the inflec* 
tion to be of the same kindred with its root. The mo- 
dern tongues particularly the English, abound in auxiliary 
words, which vary the meaning of the noun, or the verb, 
without requiring any considerable varieties of inflection. 
Thus, / do love, I did love, I have loved, I had loved, I 
shall love, have the same import with amo, amabam, ama- 
vi, amaveram, amabo. It is obvious, that a language, like 
the Greek and Latin, which can thus comprehend in one 
word the meaning of two or three words, must have some 
advantages over those which are not so comprehensive. 
Perhaps, indeed, it may not be more conspicuous ; but, in 
the arrangement of words, and consequently in harmony 
and energy, as well as in conciseness, it may be much 
more elegant. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Of Adverbs. %. 

An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an 
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He 

K 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

reads well ;" " A truly good man ;" " He writes very 
correctly " 

Some adverbs are compared, thus ; " Soon, sooner ? 
soonest ;" " often, oftener, oftenest." Those ending in 
/*/, are compared by more % and most ; as, " Wisely, more 
wisely* most wisely." 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to ex* 
press compendiously in one word, what must otherwise 
have required two or more : as, " He acted wisely/ 5 
for, he acted with wisdom ; " prudently," for, with pru- 
dence ; " he did it here," for, ?;e did it in this place ; 
" exceedingly," for, to a great degree ; " often and sel- 
dom," for many, and for few times ; " very," for, in an 
eminent degree, &c. 

There are many words in the English language that 
are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as ad- 
verbs : as, " More men than women were there ;" or, 
" lam more diligent than he." In the former sentence, 
more is evidently an adjective, and in the latter, an ad- 
verb. There are others that are sometimes used as sub- 
stantives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, * 4 To day's 
lesson is longer than yesterday's ." here to-day and yes- 
terday are substantives, because they are words that make 
sense of themselves, and admit besides of a genitive case ; 
but in the phrase, ' k He came home yesterday, and sets 
out again to day," they are adverbs of time; because they 
answer to the question when. The adverb much is used 
as all three : as, l< Where much is given, much is re- 
quired ;" " Much money has been expended :" " It is much 
better to go than to stay." In the first of these sentences, 
much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; 
and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the 
sense can determine what they are. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to 
certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, 
Order, Place, Timec Quantity, Manner or quality, Doubt, 
Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Of number : as, " One, twice, thrice, 8cc. 

2. Of order: as, "First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, 
fifthly, lastly, finally," &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. Ill 

3. Of filace : as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, any- 
where, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thi- 
ther, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, 
hence, thence, whithersoever," kc. 

4. Of time 

Of time firesent : as " Now, to day," 8cc. 

Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, 
heretofore hitherto, long since, long ago," Sec. 

Of time to come : as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, 
henceforth, henceforward, by and by instantly, presently, 
immediately, straightways," &c. 

Of time indefinite : as u Oft, often, oft-times, often- 
times, sometimes, soon., seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, 
yearly, always, when then, ever never, again," &x. 

5. Of quantity: as,'* 4 Much little, sufficiently, how 
much, how great enough, abundantly," &c. 

6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, 
unjustly, quickly, slowly &c. Adverbs of quality are the 
most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by 
adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or 
changing le into ly : as, " Bad badly ; cheerful, cheerful? 
ly ; able, ably; admirable admirably,." 

7. Of doubt : as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, 
perchance." 

8. Of affirmation : as, " Verily, truly, undoubtedly, 
doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 

9. Of negation : as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not 
at all, in no wise," 6cc. 

10. Of interrogation : as, u How, why, wherefore, whe- 
ther," &c. 

11. Of comparison: as, " More, most, better, best, 
worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many 
which are formed by a combination of several of the pre- 
positions with the adverbs of place here, there, and where : 
as, " Hereof, thereof, whereof, hereto, thereto< whereto; 
hereby, thereby whereby ; herewith, therewith, where- 
with ; herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, i. e. there-for,) 
wherefore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or hereon, there- 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

upon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. Except 
therefore, the"se are seldom used. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but 
becomes an adverb merely by its application : as when we 
say, ** be rides about ;" a he was near falling;" " but do 
not after lay the blame on me.* 5 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of 
nouns, and the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. : as, 
" Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat,' 3 &c. 

The words when and where, and all others of the same 
nature, such as whence, whi'her whenever, wherever, Sec. 
may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because 
they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunc- 
tions : of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of ad- 
verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of 
filace. 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the word 
therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining sen- 
tences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. When 
it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction : 
as, " He is good, therefore he is happy" The same ob- 
servation may be extended to the words consequently, ac- 
cordingly, and the like. When these are subjoined to and, 
or joined to if, since, he, they are adverbs, the connexion 
being made without their help : when they appear single, 
.and unsupported by any other connective, they may be 
called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what neces- 
sity there is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided 
with tenses, to show that circumstance. The answer is, 
though tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater dis- 
tinctions of time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses 
would be a perplexity without end. What a variety of 
forms must be given to the verb, to denote yesterday, to- 
day, to-morrow, formerly, lately , just now now. m medi- 
ately, presently, soon, hereafter, &c. It was this conside- 
ration that made the adverbs of time necessary, over and 
above the tenses. 



ETYMOLOGY. 113 



CHAPTER YIIU 

Of Prepositions. 

Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
and to show the relation between them. They are, for 
the most part, put before nouns and pronouns, as, " He 
went from London to York ;" " She is above disguise ;" 
"They are instructed by him." 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


off 


to 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


for 


'without 


between 


up 


among 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


with 


under 


from 


before 


about 


in 


through 


beyond 


behind 


against 



Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition •; 
as, to uphold, to invest, to overlook : and this composition 
sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to under- 
stand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the pre- 
position is more frequently placed after the verb, and 
separately from it, like an adverb, in which situation 
it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a 
new meaning; and may still be considered as belonging 
to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to cast) is to throw ; 
but to cast u/i, or to compute, an account, is quite a different 
thing : thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over* Sec. So 
that the meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the 
phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain 
syllables employed, which Grammarians have called inse- 
parable prepositions : as, be, con, mis, Sec in bedeck, con- 
join, mistake : but as they are not words of any kind, they 
cannot properly be called a species of preposition. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is to express 
those relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly 
marked by cases, or the different endings of nouns See 
page 50. The necessity and use of them will appear 
fro^ the following examples If we say, " he writes a 
pen," " they ran the river," < the tower fell the Greeks," 

Kg 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," there is observable, 
in each of these expressions, either a total want of con- 
nexion, or such a connexion as produces falsehood or noA- 
sense : and it is evident, that, before they can be turned 
into sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some con- 
necting word: as thus, « He writes with a pen;" " they 
ran towards the river ;" u the tower fell upon the Greeks ;" 
" Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey ." We see 
by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to 
connect those words, which in their signification are not 
naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, 
seem to have denoted relations of place ; but they are 
now used figuratively to express other relations. For 
example, as they who are above have in several respects 
the advantage of such as are below, prepositions express- 
ing high and low places are used for superiority and in- 
feriority in general : as, " He is above disguise ;" " we 
serve under a good master ;" " he rules over a willing 
people;" " we should do nothing beneath our character." 

The importance of the prepositions will be further per- 
ceived by the explanation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or conse- 
quence, and other relations connected with these : as, 
" The house of my friend ;" that is, " the house belonging 
o my friend ;" " He died of a fever ;" that is, "in conse- 
quence of a fever." 

To, or unto, is opposed to from ; as, " He rode from 
Salisbury to Winchester. 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or cir- 
cumstance Sec as, " He loves her for (that is, on account 
of) her amiable qualities " 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, 
means, &c. ; as, " He was killed by a fall :" that is, " a 
fall was the cause of his being killed ;" a This house was 
built by him ;" that is, " he was the builder of it." 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, Sec: as, 
" We will go with you ;" " They are on good terms with 

each other.". With also alludes to the instrument or 

means ; as, u He was cut with a knife." 

In relates to time, place the state or manner of being 
or acting, Sec. : as, " He was born in (that is, during) the 



ETYMOLOGY. 115 

year 1720 ;" <k He dwells in the city ;" * c She lives in af- 
fluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind t 
as, " He retired into the country ;" " Copper is converted 
into brass.'' 

Within, relates to something comprehended in any place 
or time : as, " They are within the house ;" " He began 
and finished his work within the limited time," 

The signification of without is opposite to that of within : 
as, " She stands without the gate :" But it is more fre- 
quently opposed to with; as, u You may go without me ." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions will 
be readily understood, without a particular detail of them. 
We shall, therefore, conclude this head with observing, 
that there is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the 
use of the prepositions by and with ; which is observable 
in sentences like the following : < He walks with a staff 
by moonlight ;" u He was taken by stratagem, and killed 
with a sword." Put the one proposition for the other, 
and say, " he walks by a staff with moonlight ;" " he was 
taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword ;" and it will 
appear, that they differ in signification more than one, at 
first view, would be apt to imagine. 

Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect 
of conjunctions; as, "After their prisons were thrown 
open." &x. ^Before I die;" '" They made haste to be 
prepared against their friends arrived :" but if the noun 
time, which is understood, be added, they will lose their 
conjunctive form ; as, u After [the time when] their pri- 
sons," &c, 

The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and seve- 
ral others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so 
considered : as, " They had their reward soon after ; u He 
died not long before;' " He dwells above:"* but if the nouns 
time and place be added, they w r ill lose their adverbial 
form; as, " He died not long before that time" Sec. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Of Conjunctions. 
A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used 
to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sen- 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tences, to make but one. It sometimes connects only 
words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts t 
the copulative and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to 
continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a suppo- 
sition, a cause, &c. : as, u He and his brother reside in 
London ;" " I will go j/he will accompany me :" " You 
are happy, because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to con- 
nect and continue the sentence, but also to express op- 
position of meaning in different degrees : as, " Though 
he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform;' 5 
w They came with her, but they went away without her. ,? 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 

The Cofiulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, foi% 
because, therefore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, 
unless* either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunc- 
tion and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as a preposition. 
" I rest then upon this argument ;" then is here a con- 
junction: in the following phrase, it is an adverb; " He 
arrived then, and not before." " I submitted ; for it was 
vain to resist :" in this sentence, for is a conjunction; 
in the next, it is a preposition: " He contended for vic- 
tory only." In the first of the following sentences, since 
is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition ; and in 
the third, an adverb : " Since we must part, let us do it 
peaceably:" " I have not seen him since that time :" " Our 
friendship commenced long since." 

Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions serve to con- 
nect sentences : as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the 
Lord, and keepeth his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun 
and a connective. Nay. the union by relatives is rather 
closer, than that by mere conjunctions. The latter may 
form two or more sentences into one ; but, by the former, 
several sentences may incorporate in one and the same 
clause of a sentence. Thus, thou seest a man, and he is 



ETYMOLOGY, llf 

called Peter," is a sentence consisting of two distinct 
( lauses, united by the copulative and : but, " the man whom 
thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one clause, 
und not less comprehensive than the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they ap- 
pear to unite only words ; as in the following instances ; 
"Duty and interest f rbid vicious indulgences;" " Wis- 
dom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of expres- 
sion contains two sentences, namely ; <■ Duty forbids vi- 
cious indulgences ; interest forbids vicious indulgences ;" 
" Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us. 55 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect 
sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely con- 
nects words, not sentences ; as, " The king and queen are 
an amiable pair;" where the affirmation cannot refer to 
each ; it being absurd to say, that the king or the queen 
only is an amiable pair. So in the instances, "two and 
two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth volumes will complete 
the set of books." Prepositions also, as before^observed, 
connect words ; but they do it to show the relation which 
the connected words have to each other: conjunctions} 
when they unite words only, are designed to show the re- 
lations, which those words, so united, have to other parts 
of the sentence. 

As they are many conjunctions and connective phrases 
appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never 
employed in joining the members of a sentence ; so there 
are several conjunctions apnropriated to the latter use, 
which are never employed in the former; and some that 
are equally adapted to both those purposes : as. again^ 
further, besides, exc of the first kind ; than lest, unless, 
that, so that, &c. of the second ; and but, for, therefore^ 
&c. of the last. 

We shall close this chapter with a few observations on 
the peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; a sub- 
ject which will, doubtless, give pleasure to the ingenious 
student, an expand his views of the importance of his 
grammatical studies. 

"Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunc- 
tions. The former make speech more concise ; the latter 
make it more explicit. Relatives comprehend the mean- 




118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ing of a pronoun and conjunction copulative: conjunction- 
while they couple sentences, may also express opposition, 
inference, and many other relations and dependences. 

Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their 
reasonings to a considerable length, it is not probable that 
they would make much use of conjunctions, or of any 
other connectives. Ignorant people, and children, gene- 
rally speak in short and separate sentences. The same 
thing is true of barbarous nations; and hence uncultivated 
languages are not well supplied with connecting particles. 
The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever appear- 
ed in the world ; and their language, accordingly, abounds 
more than any other in connectives. 

Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of 
writing. In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is 
required, and every appearance of formality avoided, many 
of them would have a bad effect. In passionate language 
too, it may be proper to omit them : because it is the nature 
of violent passion, to speak rather in disjointed sentences, 
than in the way of inference and argument. Books of 
aphorisms, like the Proverbs of -olomon, have few con- 
nectives ; because they instruct, not by reasoning but in 
detached observations. And narrative will sometimes ap- 
pear very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly 
told, with scarcely any other conjunction than the simple 
copulative and : which is frequently the case n the histo- 
rical parts of Scripture. When narration is full of images 
or events, the omission of connectives may, by crowding 
the principal words upon one another, give a sort of pic* 
ture of hurry and tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of 
description. But when facts are to be traced down through 
their consequences, or upwards to their causes ; when the 
complicated designs of mankind are to be laid open, or 
conjectures offered concerning them : when the historian 
argues either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to 
state the pleas and principles of contending parties; there 
will be occasion for every species of connective, as much 
as in philosophy itself. In fact, it i in argument, investi- 
gation, and science, that this part of speech is peculiarly 
and indispensably necessary," 



ETYMOLOGY. 1 19 

CHAPTER X. 

Of Interjections. 

Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence to express the passions or emotions of the 
speaker : as, u Oh ! I have alienated my friend ; alas ! 
I fear f r life :" ** O virtue ! how amiable thou art!" 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other lan- 
guages, are comprised within a small compass. They are 
of different sorts according to the different passions which 
they serve to express Those which intimate earnestness 
or grief are, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! Such as are expressive of 
contempt, are fiish ! tush! of wonder, high! really! 
strange ! of calling, hem ! ho ! soho ! of aversion or disgust, 
foh ! Jie ! away! of a call of the attention, lo ! behold ! hark! 
of requesting silence, hush ! hist ! of salutation, welcome ! 
hail ! all hail ! Besides, these, several others frequent in 
the mouths of the multitude, might be enumerated ; but, 
in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to 
expatiate on such expressions of passion, as are scarcely 
worthy of being ranked among the branches of artificial 
language.— See the Octavo Grammar. 

chapter XI. 

Of Derivation* 

Section 1. Of the various ways in which words are de- 
rived from one another. 

Having treated of the different sorts of words, and their 
various modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, 
it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word 
is derived from another. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways \ 
viz. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from " to 
love," comes "lover;' 3 from "to vist, visiter;" from 
"to survive, surviver ;" &x. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is 
difficult to determine whether the verb was deduced 
from the noun, or the noun from the verb viz 9 " Love, to 
love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, 
to walk; ride, to ride; act. to act," &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs 4 as, from the substantive salt, 
comes " to salt;" from the adjective warm, "to warm, 5 ' 
and from the adverb forward, " to forward." Sometimes 
they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening 
the consonant; as, from grass, to graze:" sometimes by 
adding en ; as, from " length, to lengthen;" especially to 
adjectives: as, from "short, to shorten; bright to 
brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the fol- 
lowing manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived 
from substantives by adding y : as. from " Health, healthy ; 
wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty," Sec. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing 
is made, are derived from substantives by adding en : 
as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden; wool, wool- 
len," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from sub- 
stantives, by adding ful : as, from c * Joy, joyful ; sin, sin- 
ful ; fruit, fruitful," Sec. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of dimi- 
nution, are derived from substantives, by adding some : as, 
from " Light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toil- 
some," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from substantives, 
by adding less : as, from " Worth, worthless ;" from " care, 
careless ; joy, joyless," Sec. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substan- 
tives, by adding ly : as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earth- 
ly: court, courtly, ",6cc. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or 
from substantives, by adding ish to them : which termina- 
tion, when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or 



ETYMOLOGY. 121 

lessening' the quality: as, " White, whitish ;" i. e. some- 
what white. When added to substantives, it signifies simi- 
litude or tendency to a character: as, "Child, childish; 
thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs* 
by adding the termination able ; and those adjectives sig» 
nify capacity : as, " Answer, answerable ; to change, 
changeable." 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes 
by adding the termination ness : as, " White, whiteness ; 
swift, swiftness :" sometimes by adding th or t, and making 
a smajl change in some of the letters : as, " Long, length ; 
high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by 
adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same 
quality as the adjectives from which they are derived : as, 
from " base," comes " basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" 
from "able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from 
one another, that it would be extremely difficult, and 
nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive 
words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form 
much the greater number. A few more instances only 
can be given here. 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives 
by adding the terminations hood or heady shifts ery, wick, 
rick, dorriy ian, merit, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or heady are such as signify 
character or qualities : as, " Manhood, knighthood, false- 
hood," &c. 

Substantives ending in shift, are those that signify office, 
employment, state, or condition : as, " Lordship, steward- 
ship, partnership," Sec. Some substantives in ship are de- 
rived from adjectives : as, "Hard, hardship, &c." 

Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit: 
as, " Slavery, foolery, prudery," 8cc. Some substantives 
of this sort come from adjectives ; as, Brave, bravery," 
5cc. % .*• ■ 

Substantives ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote do- 
minion, jurisdiction, or condition : as, " Bailiwick, bishop- 
rick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. 

L 



122 English grammar, 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify 
profession ; as, " Physician, musician," &c. Those that 
end in ment and age y some generally from the French., 
and commonly signify the act or habit : as, " Command- 
ment, usage." 

Some substantives ending in ard, .are derived froin 
verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit; as, 
" Drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard." 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but 
these are not many. They are formed by adding the 
terminations, kin, ling, ' ing, ock, el, and the like: as, 
"Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling : duck, duckling; hill? 
hillock ; cock, cockerel," ike. 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing Eng- 
lish words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other 
languages, must be omitted, as the English scholar is not 
supposed to be acquainted with these languages. The 
best English dictionaries will, however, furnish some in- 
formation on this head, to those who are desirous of ob- 
taining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his " Diversions 
of Purley," has given an ingenious account of the deriva- 
tion and meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, 
and prepositions. 

It is highly probable that the system of this acute gram- 
marian, is founded in truth ; and that adverbs preposi- 
tions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or abbreviations of 
other parts of speech. But as many of them are derived 
from obsolete words in our own language, or from words 
in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which is, 
therefore, either obscure, or generally unknown ; as the 
system of this very able etymologist is not universally ad- 
mitted ; and as, by long prescription, whatever may have 
been their origin, the words in question appear to have 
acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it seems 
proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary 
treatise of grammar: especially as this plan coincides 
with that, by which other languages must be taught ; and 
will render the study of them less intricate. It is of small 
moment, by what names and classification we distinguish 
these words, provided their meaning and use are well un- 
derstood, A philosophical consideration of the subject, 
may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the gram- 



ETYMOLOGY. 123 

matical student, when his knowledge and judgment be- 
come more improved. 

Section 2. A sketch of the steps ^ by which the English 
Language has risen to its fire sent state of refinement. 

Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will 
probably be gratifying lo the curious scholar to be in- 
formed of some particulars respecting the origin of the 
English language, and the various nations to which it is 
indebted for the copiousness, elegance, and refinement, 
which it has now attained. 

" When the ancient Britons were so harassed and op- 
pressed by the invasions of their northern neighbours, 
the Scots and Picts, that their situation was truly misera- 
ble, they sent an embassy (about the middle of the fifth 
century) to the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the 
north of Germany, with solicitations for speedy relief. 
The Saxons accordingly came over to Britain, and were 
successful in repelling the incursions of the Scots and 
Picts; but seeing the weak and defenceless state of the 
Britons, they resolved to take advantage of it ; and at 
length established themselves in the greater part of South- 
Britain, after having dispossessed the original inhabitants. 

" From these barbarians, who founded several petty 
kingdoms in this island, and introduced their own laws 
language, and manners, is derived the groundwork of the 
English language ; which, even in its present state of cul- 
tivation, and notwithstanding the successive augumenta- 
tions and improvements, which it has received through 
various channels, displays very conspicuous traces of its 
Saxon original. 

iC The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of 
the kingdom ; for before the middle of the ninth century, 
the Danes, a hardy and adventurous nation who had long 
infested the northern seas with their piracies, began to ra- 
vage the English coasts. Their first attempts were, in~ 
general, attended with such success, that they were en- 
couraged to a renewal of their ravages ; til], at length, in 
the beginning of the eleventh century, they made them- 
selves masters of the greater part of England. 

" Though the period, during which these invaders oc- 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cupied the English throne, was very short not greatly ex- 
ceeding half a century, it is highly probable that some 
change was introduced by them into the language spoken 
by those whom they had subdued : but this change cannot 
be supposed to have been very considerable as the Danish 
and Saxon languages arose from one common source, the 
Gothic being the parent of both. 

i4 The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, 
were the Normans, who, in the year 1066, introduced their 
leader William to the possession of the English throne* 
This prince, soon after his accession, endeavoured to bring 
his own language (the Norman French) into use among 
his new subject's ; but his efforts were not very successful, 
as the Saxons entertained a great antipathy to these haughty 
foreigners. In process of time, however, many Norman 
words and phrases were incorporated into the Saxon lan- 
guage : but its general form and construction still remain- 
eel the same. 

" From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language 
continued to receive occasional accessions of foreign 
words, till it acquired such a degree of copiousness and 
strength, as to render it susceptible of that polish, which 
it has received from writers of taste and genius, in the last 
and present centuries. During this period, the learned 
have enriched it with many significant expressions, drawn 
from the treasures of Greek and Roman literature ; the in- 
genious and the fashionable have imported occasional sup- 
plies of French, Spanish, Italian, and German words, 
gleaned during their foreign excursions ; and the connex- 
ions which we maintain, through the medium of govern- 
ment and commerce, with many remote nations, have made 
some additions to our native vocabulary. 

" In this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo- 
Saxons proceed, through the various stages of innovation, 
and the several gradations of refinement, to the formation 
of the present English tongue." 

See the Twelfth chapter of the Octavo Grammar. 



( 125 ) 

PART in. 

SYNTAX. 

The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats 
of the agreement and construction of words in a sen- 
tence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a com- 
plete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
finite^ verb : as, " Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences connected together : as, " Life is short, and 
art is long." " Idleness produces want, vice, and misery. 5 * 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and 
compound, so the members of sentences may be divided 
likewise hvo simple and compound members ; for whole 
sentences, whether simple or compounded, may become 
members of other sentences, by means of some additional 
connexion ; as in the following examples ; u The ox know- 
eth his owner, and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel 
doth not know, my people do not consider. " This sen- 
tence consists of two compounded members, each of which 
is subdivided into two simple members, which are proper- 
ly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explica- 
tive, or explaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the im- 
perative, or commanding. 

An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or 
not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a 
direct manner : as, »< I am ; thou writest ; Thomas is lov- 
ed. If the sentence be negative, the adverb not is placed 
after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it has no 
auxiliary ; as, " I do not touch him ;" or, " I touched him 
not," 

* Finite verbs are those in which number and person appertain. Verbs 
in the infinitive mood have «no respect to number or person, 

12 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 1. 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is ask- 
ed, the nominative case follows the principal verb or the 
auxiliary ; as, " Was it he ?" " Did Alexander conquer the 
Persians?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded 
to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise 
follows the verb or the auxiliary ; as, " Go, thou traitor 1" 
6{ Do thou go : J * " Haste ye away ; 5 ' unless the verb let be 
used ; as, " Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together? 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a 
whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the sub- 
ject, the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of ; the attri- 
bute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and 
the object is the thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes 
before the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase 
denoting the object, follows the verb; as, " A wise man 
governs his passions.'' Here, a wise man is the subject ; 
governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and his pas- 
sions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and 
Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech 
has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of 
words in a sentence, the following rules and observations 
should be carefully studied. 

RULE I. 

A Verb must agree with its nominative cases, in num* 
ber and person : as, " I learn ;" " Thou art improved. 5 ' 
" The birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of 
this rule. " What signifies good opinions, when our prac- 



Rule 1.] syntax. 127 

tice is bad i" M what signify." " There 's two or three of 
us, who have seen the work :" " there are." " We may 
suppose there was more impostors than one :" " there were 
more." " I have considered what have been said on both 
sides in this controversy :" " what has been said." " If thou 
would be healthy, live temperately :" " if thou wouldst" 
" Thou sees how littie has been done :" " thou seest" 
" Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and 
should do something :" " canst ?ict } maxjst, and shouldst" 
" Full many a flower are born to blush unseen:" "is born$ 
" A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for 
friendship :" ^prepares us." " A variety of blessings have 
been conferred upon us :" " has been." " In piety and 
virtue consist the happiness of man :" " consists." " To 
these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules 
and maxims :" " is subjoined." 

ff*\. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times put as the nominative case to the verb ; as, " To see 
the sun is pleasant ;" « To be good is to be happy ; 5 V" A 
desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commenda- 
ble ;" " That warm climates should accelerate the growth 
of the human body, and shorten its duration, is very rea- 
sonable to believe ;" " To be temperate in eating and 
drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve 
the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best pre- 
servatives of health." 

i$ 2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the par- 
ticiple, ought to have a nominative case, either expressed 
or implied : as, " Awake ; arise ;" that is, * Awake ye ; 
arise y^ >x fr 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the 
use of the verb without its nominative case. " As it hath 
pleased him of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, 
and hath preserved you in the great danger," 8cc. The 
verb " hath preserved" has here no nominative case, for 
it cannot be properly supplied by the preceding word, 
" him" which is in the objective case. It ought to be* 
<{ and as he hath preserved you ;" or rather, " and to pre- 
serve you." " If the calm in which he was born, and last- 

•The chief practical notes under each Rule," are regularly numbered, in or- 
der to make them correspond to the examples in the volume of Exercises/ 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 1. 

ed, so long, had continued ;" " and which lasted," Sec. 
" These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted 
credit, and are the same that were practised," Sec. ; " and 
they are the same." " A man whose inclinations led him 
to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the busi- 
ness ;" " and who had," &c. " A cloud gathering in the 
north ; which we have helped to raise, and may quickly 
break in a storm upon our heads ;" « and which may 
quickly." 

// 3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and 
when an address is made to a person, should belong to some 
verb, either expressed or implied : as, " Who wrote this 
book ?" " James ;" that is, « James wrote it.'l/i' To whom 
thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nomi- 
native case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to an- 
swer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of tife 
preceding observation. 

i " Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring 
prince would have wanted a great deal of that incense 
which hath been offered up to him." The pronoun it is 
here the nominative case to the verb " observed ;" and 
which rule, is left by itself, a nominative case without any 
verb following it. This form of expression, though im- 
proper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this rule 
had been observed," Sec. " Man, though he has great 
variety of thoughts, and such from which others as we 
as himself might receive profit and delight, yet they an 
ail within his own breast." In this sentence, the nomina- 
tive man stands alone and unconnected with any $erb, either 
expressed or implied. It should be, " Though man has great 
variety," Sec. 

u 4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of 
'which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, 
it may agree with either of them ; but some regard must 
be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as 
also to that which stands next to the verb : as, " His meat 
was locusts and wild honey ;" u A great cause of the low 
state of industry were the restraints put upon it ;" " The 
wages of sin is death."jj^** 

ff 5, When the nominative case has no personal tense of 



Rule 1.1 syntax, 129 

a verb, but is put before a participle, independently on the 
rest of the sentence, it is called the case absolute : as, 
" Shame being lost, all virtue is lost ;" " That having been 
discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it.* 4 ^^. 
As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, 
always the nominative, the following example is erroneous* 
in making it the objective. " Solomon was of this mind ; 
and I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as 
any body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a 
much greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be 
11 he only excepted." 



7 The nominative case is commonly placed before the 
verb ; but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a sim- 
ple tense ; and between the auxiliary, and the verb or par- 
ticiple, if a compound tense: as, 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a 
wish expressed ; as, " Confidest thou in me ?" " Read 
thou ;" " Mayst thou be happy I" " Long live the King !" 

2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction 
if: as, " Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 

3d, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden ap- 
peared the king." 

4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, 
there, then, thence, hence, thus> &c. : as, " Here am I ;" 
" There was he slain ;" " Then cometh the end ;" 
w Thence ariseth his grief;" " Hence proceeds his anger j M 
" Thus was the affair settled." 

5th. When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to 
be coupled with another sentence: as, " Ye shall not eat of 
it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die. ,N ^<^ 

Some grammarians assert, that the phrases, as follows, 
as afifiears, form what are called impersonal verbs ; and 
should, therefore, be confined to the singular number : as, 
" The arguments advanced were nearly as follows;" " The 
positions were as appears incontrovertible :" that is, " as it 
follows," " as it appears." If we give (say they) the sen- 
tence a different turn, and instead of as, say such as, the 
verb is no longer termed impersonal $ but properly agrees 
with its nominative, in the plural number : as, " The argu« 



130 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 1. 

ments advanced were nearly such as follow ;" " The posi- 
tions were such as afi/iear incontrovertible."* 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke 9 s state- 
ment, " That as, however and whenever used in English ? 
means the same as it, or that, or which ;" and who are not 
satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, 
should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary 
the form of expression. Thus, the sense of the preceding 
sentences, may be conveyed in the following terms. " The 
arguments advanced were nearly of the following nature ; ?! 
" The following are nearly the arguments which were ad- 
vanced ;" " The arguments advanced were nearly those 
which follow :" " It appears that the positions were incon- 
trovertible ;" " That the positions were incontrovertible is, 
apparent ;" " The positions were apparently incontroverti- 
ble." See the Octavo Grammar ; the note under Rule I. 

RULE II. 

Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number, 
joined together by a copulative conjunction, expressed 
or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
agreeing with them in the plural number : as, u So- 
crates and Plato were wise ; they were the most eminent 
philosophers of Greece ;" 4t The sun that rolls over our 
heads, the food that we receive, the rest that we enjoy, 
daily admonish us of a superior and superintending 
Power, 9 'f 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are 
annexed. " And so was also James and John the sons of 
Zebedee, who were partners with Simon ;" M and so were 

* These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the autho- 
rity of an eminent critic on language and composition " When a verb is 
used impersonally," says Dr. Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, "it 
ought undoubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pro- 
noun be expressed or understood.". For this reason, analogy and usage 
favour this mode of expression : " The conditions of the agreement were 
as follows ;" and not, as follow, A few late writers have inconsiderately 
adopted this last form, through a mistake of the construction. For the same 
reason, we ought to say, "I shall consider his censures so far only as con- 
cerns my friend's conduct ;" and not ' so far as concern. 9 " 

f See the exceptions to this rule ? at p. 46, of the Key ; 12th edition. 



Rule 2.] SYNTAX. 131 

also," " All joy, tranquillity, and peace* even for eyer and 
ever, doth dwell ;" " dwell for ever." u By whose power 
all good and evil is distributed ;" " are distributed." " Their 
love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished ;" 
" are perished." " The thoughtless and intemperate en- 
joyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and the for- 
getfulness of our being accountable creatures, obliterates 
every serious thought of the proper business of life, and 
effaces the sense of religion and of God ;" It ought to be, 
" obliterate" and " efface" 

1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely dis- 
tinguishable in sense, and sometimes even when they are 
very different, some authors have thought it allowable to 
put the verbs, nouns, and pronouns, in the singular num- 
ber : as, " Tranquillity and peace dwells there ;" " Igno- 
rance and negligence has produced the effect ;" " The 
discomfiture and slaughter was very great." But it is evi- 
dently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to consi- 
der two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their 
shades of difference ; and if there be no difference, one of 
them must be superfluous, "and ought to be rejected. 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the 
verb may be understood as applied to each of the preceding 
terms ; as in the following example. " Sand, and salt, and 
a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man without under™ 
standing," But besides the confusion, and the latitude of 
application, which such a construction would introduce, it 
appears to be more proper and analogical, in cases where 
the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms^ 
to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, which gram- 
matically refers the verb to one or other of the preceding 
terms in a separate view. To preserve the distinctive 
uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, would 
render the rules precise, consistent, and intelligible. Dr» 
Blair very justly observes, that "two or more substantives, 
joined by a copulative, must always require the verb or 
pronoun to which they refer, to be placed in the plural 
number." 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners 
to determine, whether one or more of the clauses are to 
be considered as the nominative case ; and consequently, 
whether the verb should be in the singular or the plural 



|32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 2. 

number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of va- 
ried examples of this nature, which may serve as some 
government to the scholar, with respect to sentences ot a 
similar construction, « Prosperity, with humility, renders 
its possessor truly amiable." " The ship, with all her fur- 
niture, was destroyed," « Not only his estate, his reputa- 
tion too has suffered by his misconduct." « The general 
also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for re- 
dress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the 
prince, as well as the people, was blameworthy." « The 
king, with his life-guard has just passed through the vil- 
lage." " In the mutual influence of body and soul, there is 
a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom." 
" Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recom- 
mend the measure." « Patriotism, morality, every public 
and private consideration, demand our submission to just 
and lawful government." " Nothing delights me so much 
as the works of nature." # . 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, 
we see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other wri- 
ters ; and we annex them for the reader's consideration. 
« A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and 
circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions. , 
" The king, with the lords and commons, form.m excel- 
lent frame of government." « The side A, with the sides 
B and C compose the triangle." " The fire communicated 
Itself to' the bed, which, with the furniture of the room, 
and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed.' It 
is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of ex- 
pression do not appear to be warranted by the just prin- 
ciples of construction. The words, « A long course of 
time," " The king," « The side A," and " which, are 
*he true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the last 
example, the word all should be expunged. As the pre- 
position with governs the objective case in English ; and, 
if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, 
it is manifest, that the clauses following with; m the pre- 
cediner sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative 
case. They cannot be at the same time in the objective 
and the nominative cases. The following sentence ap- 
pears to be unexceptionable ; and may serve to explain 
The others. « The lords and commons are essential branches 



Rule 3.] syntax, 133 

of the British constitution: the king, with them forms an 
excellent frame of government."* 

o/Ai the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined 
together by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, 
in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, 
the second person takes place of the third, and the first of 
both : as, " James, and thou, and I, are attached to our 
country." " Thou and he shared it between you^^ 



MULE III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to 
that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, 
noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms 
taken separately, it must be in the singular number : as* 
" Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake ; ,? 

14 John, James, or Joseph intends to accompany me ;' ? 

" There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor un» 
derstanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : 
* A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, 
as well as read them in a description ;" " read zV." " Nei- 
ther character nor dialogue were yet understood ," " was 
yet." " It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a 
satire do not carry in them robbery or murder;" " does 
not carry in zV." " Death, or some worse misfortune, soon 
divide them." It ought to be " divides." 

I .^VVhen singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of 
different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must 
agree with that person which is placed nearest to it : as ? 
M I or thou art to blame ;" " Thou or I am in faulty " I, 
or thou, or he, is the author of it ;" " George or I am the 
person." But it would be better to say ; " Either I am to 
blame, or thou art," &c. 

2^When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, 
or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree 
with the plural noun and pronoun : as, " Neither poverty 



* Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sen- 
tence would certainly stand better thu3 ; " The king, the lords, and the 
commons, form an excellent constitution." 

M 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Rule 4. 

nor riches were % -injurious to him ;" c< I or they were of- 
fended by it." But in this case, the plural noun, or pro- 
noun, when it can conveniently be done, should be placed 
next to the verb.y^ 

liXJLE IV. 

A noun of multitude or signifying -many, may have 
a verb or pronoun agreeingfwith it, eith.tr of the singular 
or plural number ; yet not without regard to the import 
of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idta, as, 
" The meeting was large ;" " The parliament is dis- 
solved ;" " The nation is powerful ;" " My people do 
not consider : they have net known me ;" u The multi- 
tude eagerly pursue pleasure, as their chief good ;" 
^The council were divided in their sentiments." 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediate- 
ly suggest the idea of the number it represents, or whether 
it exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as one thing. 
In the former case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the 
latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper 
to say, "The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort 
makes use of wooden shoes" It would be better to say, 
" The peasantry go barefoot and the middle sort make 
use/' Sec. because the idea in both these cases, is that of a 
number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in the 
following sentences, in which nouns of number have verbs 
plural ; because the ideas they represent seem not to be 
sufficiently divided in the mind. "The court of Rome 
were not without solicitude." ' The house of commons 
^:cre of small weight." " The house of lords were so 
much influenced by these reasons." " Stephen's party 
were entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader." 
tC An army of twenty-four thousand were assembled. 5 ' 
" What reason have the church of Rome for proceeding 
in this manner?" " There is indeed no constitution sq 
tame and careless of their own defence." * fc All the vir- 
tues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but 
his follies and vices are innumerable." Is not mankind 
in this place a noun of multitude, and such as requires 
the pronoun referring to it to be in the plural number, 
their ? 



Rule 5.] syntax. 135 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must always agree with the:.* antecedents, 
and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and num- 
ber : as, " This is the friend whom I love ;*' *< That is 
the vice which I hate;" u The king and the queen had 
put on their robes; 1 ' "The moon appears, and she 
shines, bat the light is not her own." 

The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, 
and the verb agrees with it accordingly : as, " Thou who 
lovest wisdom ;" " I who speak0$iro\n experience," 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; 
a few of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his 
guard. " Each of the sexes should keep within its parti- 
cular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages 
of their particular districts :" better thus : " tne sexes 
should keep within their particular bounds," Sec. " Can 
any one, on their entrance into the world, be fully secure 
that they shall not be deceived ?" " on his entrance," and 
" that he shall." " One should not think too favourably of 
ourselves ;" " of one's self." " He had one acquaintance 
wh : ch poisoned his principles;" Ci who poisoned." 
^ Every relative must have an antecedent to which it re- 
fers, either expressed or implied : as, " Who is fatal to 
others is so to himself;" that is, " the man who is fatal to 
others. X 

// Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in the 
objective case, are always placed before the verb ; as are 
also their compounds, whoever, whosoever, c. ; as, " He 
whom ye seek ;9C" This is what, or the thing which, or 
that you want ;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied in a manner which appears 
to be exceptionable : as, " All fevers, except what are 
called nervous," &x. It would at least be better to say, 
: -> except those which are called nervous. 
/yt. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of 
the noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence 
as the noun which they represent; for it would be im- 
proper to say, u The king he is just ;" " I saw her the 
queen ${ " The men they were there;" M Many words 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 5. 

they darken speech;" " My banks they are furnished with 
bees." These personals are superfluous, as there is not 
the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where 
the principal word is present. The nominative case they* 
in the following sentence, is also superfluous ; " Who, in- 
stead of going about doing good* they are perpetually in- 
tent upon doing mischief." 

^. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as 
well as to things; but after an adjective in the superlative 
degree, and after the pronominal adjective same, it is gene- 
rally used in preference to who or which : as, " Charles XII. 
king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the 
world ever saw ;" " Catiline's followers were the most pro- 
fligate that could be found in any city." u He is the same 
man that we saw before 3 ^ There are cases wherein we 
cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as applied 
to persons : as, first after who the. interrogative ; " Who 
that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" 
Secondly, when persons make but a part of the antece- 
dent ; ' The woman, and the estate, that became his por- 
tion were too much for his moderation." In neither of 
these examples could any other relative have been used. 
^o The pronouns whichsoever^ whosoever^ and the like, 
are elegantly divided by the interposition of the corres- 
ponding substantives ; thus, " On whichsoever, side the 
king cast his eyes ;" would have sounded better, if writ- 
ten, " On which side soever," &c. )f 

// 4. Many persons are apt, in conversation^ to put the ob- 
jective case of the personal pronouns in the place of these 
and those : as, " Give me them books;" instead of %i those 
books." We may sometimes find thistfault even in wri- 
ting : as, "Observe them three thereat We also frequent- 
ly meet with those instead of they, at the beginning of a 
sentence, and where there is no particular reference to 
an antecedent ; as, " Those that sow in tears, sometimes 
reap in joy." They that, or they who sow in tears. 

It is not, however always easy to say, whether a per- 
sonal pronoun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain 
constructions '"We are not unacquainted with the ca- 
lumny of them [or those! who openly make use of the 
warmest professions." 



Rule 5.] syntax. 137 

^5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used 
for that and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing. 
t ''They will never believe but what I have been entirely to 
| blame." " I am not satisfied but what," &c. instead of lt but 
that'% The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems 
to be used improperly. "These punishments seem to have 
been exercised in somewhat an arbitrary manner." Some- 
times we read, " In somewhat of." The meaning is, " in a 
manner which is in some respects arbitrary." 
// 6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated 
to persons, that there is generally harshness in the appli- 
cation of it, except to the proper names of persons, or the 
general term man, woman, Sec. A term which only im- 
plies the idea of persons, and expresses them by some cir- 
cumstance or epithet, will hardly authorize the use of it : 
as, u That faction in England who most powerfully oppo- 
sed his arbitrary pretensions."^ " That faction which" would 
have been better; and the same remark will serve for the 
following examples: « France, who was in alliance with 
Sweden." " The court, who" &c. " The cavalry who," 
&c. 4i The cities who aspired at liberty." " That party 
among us who" &c. " The family whom they consider as 
usurpers." 

In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is 
properly applied or not : as, '« The number of substantial in- 
habitants with whom some cities abound." For when a term 
directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in many cases 
claim the personal relative. 4t None of the company whom 
he most affected, could cure him of the melancholy under 
which he laboured." The word acquaintance may have the 
same construction. 

Y7 We hardly consider little children as persons, because 
that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection ; and 
therefore the application of the personal relative who, in this 
case, seems to be harsh: " A child who*" It is still 
more improperly applied to animals: " A lake frequented 
by that fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in 
water. V 

/ /h. When the name of a person is used merely as $ 
name, and it does not refer to the person, the pronoun 
who ought not to be applied. " It is no wonder if such a man 

M 2 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . [Rule 5» 

did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who was 
but another name for prudence and economy." Better 
thus; u whose name was but another word for prudence ? V 
Sec. (< The word whose begins likewise to be restricted to 
persons; yet it is not done so generally, but that good 
writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The 
construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may 
see in the following instances: "Pleasure, whose nature, 
Sec." " Call every production, whose parts and vohose na- 
ture, Sec." 
Xf In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which r 
with respect to persons ; and that is when we want to distin- 
guish one person of two, or a particular person among a num- 
ber of others. We should then say, " Which of the two," 
or " Which of them, is he or she V y( 
fl r 9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of num- 
ber, we sometimes find an ^fcabiguity in the use of it : as 
when we say, " The disciples of Christ, whom we imitate ;" 
we may mean the imitation either of Christ,- or of his dis- 
ciple s.^The accuracy and clearness of the sentence, de- 
pend very much upon the proper and determinate use of the 
relative, so that it may readily present its antecedent to the 
mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or am- 
biguity. 
fl 10. It is and it was, are often, after the manner of the 
French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our 
best writers : as, (i It is either a few great men who decide 
for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious 
ringleader :V^' It is they that are the real authors, though 
the soldiers are the actors of the revolution;" " It was 
the heretics that first began to rail," Sec. ; " 9 Tis these that 
early taint the female mind." This license in the construe- 
tion of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at ali,) has, however. 
been certainly abused in the following sentence, which is 
thereby made a- very awkward one. " It is wonderful the 
very few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this 
practice." 

// 1 1 The interjections O ! Oh ! and Ah I require the objec- 
tive ase of a pronoun in the first person after them : as, " O 
me ! Oh me ! Ah me ! ,; But the nominative case in the se- 
cond person : as, " O thou persecutor !" " Oh ye hypocrites 1 ' 
a O thou, who dweliest," kc^ 



Rule 6.] syntax. 139 

/^Vhe neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English 
language, is frequently joined in explanatory sentences, 
with a noun o # r pronoun of the masculine or femmine gen- 
der : as, " It was 1 ;" " It was the man or woman that 

did it. J X 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and under- 
stood ; thus we say, " r\s appears, as follows ;" for " As it 
appears, as it follows ;" and " May be," for " It may be." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to ex- 
press ; 

1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry: as, " It 
happened on a summer's day ;" " Who is it that calls on 
me I" 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing: as, 
" How is it with you ?" 

3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any 
effect or event-, or any person considered merely as a cause: 
as, " We heard her say it was not he *," " The truth is, is 
was I that helped her." 

RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verby 
when no nominative comes between it and the verb : as ? 
" The master who taught us ;" " The trees which are 
planted." 

When a nominative comes between the relative and 

*$he verb, the relative is governed by some word in its 

own member of the sentence : as, "He who preserves 

me, to whom I owe my being, -whose I am, and zahorn I 

serve, is eternal/' 

In the several members of the last sentence, the relative 
performs a different office. In the first member, it marks 
the agent ; in the second, it submits to the government of 
the preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor , 
and in the fourth, the object of an action: and therefore it 
must be in the three different cases, correspondent to those 
offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nomina- 
tives, each to different verbs, the relative is the nominative 
to the former, and the antecedent to the latter verb: as ; 



■ 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 6, 

s{ True fihiiosofihy, 'which is the ornament of our nature, 
consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice of 
virtue, than in great talents and extensive kno'wledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction, will illustrate 
both the branches of the sixth rule. The three following 
refer to he first part. 4i How cm we avoid being grateful 
to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved them- 
selves our real friends 1" " These are the men whom, you 
might suppose, were the authors of the work :" " If you 
were here, you would find three or four, whom you would 
say passed their time agreeably : M in all these places it 
should be who instead of whom. The two latter sentences 
comain a nominative between the relative and the verb; 
and, therefore, seem to contravene the rule: but the student 
will reflect, that it is not the nominative of the verb with 
which the relative is connected. The remaining examples 
refer to the second part of the rule. " Men of line talents 
are not always the persons who we should esteem." " The 
persons who you dispute with, are precisely of your opinion." 
'" Our tutors are our benefactors, who we owe obedience to, 
and who we ought to love." In these sentence^ whom 
should be used instead o^ who. 

u I... When ihe relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
kind, the noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be 
in the same case as that which contains the question: as> 
" Whose books are these ? They are John's" " Who gave 
them to him? IVe." "Of whom did you buy them ? Of 
a bookseller ; him who lives at the Bible and Crown. ^jf— 
" Whom did you see there ? Both him and the shopman. 5 
The learner will readily comprehend this rule, by supplying 
the words which are understood in the answers.— -Thus 3 to 
expiess the answers at large, we should say, u They are 
John's books." 4> We gave them to him." " We bought 
them of him who lives, &c." " We saw both him and the 
shopman." — As the relative pronoun, when used interroga- 
tively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing 
the answer to the question, that word or phrase may pro- 
perly be termed the subsequent to the interrogative* 



Rules 7", 8.] SYNTAX. 141 

RULE VII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
of different persons, the relative and verb may agree in 
person with either, according to the sense : as, u I am 
the man who command you ;" or, " I am the man who 
commands you," 

The form of the nrst'of the two preceding sentences, 
expresses the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more 
perspicuous to say ; t; I, who command you, am the man." 
Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced by referring 
the relative to different .antecedents, will be more evident 
to the learner, in the following sentences. " I am the ge- 
neral who gives the orders to-day ;" * l I am the general, 
who give the orders to-day ; ,s that is," I, who give the or- 
ders to-day, am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined 
to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that 
agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as 
in the following instance: 5i I am the Lord that maketh all 
things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone. 3 ' Isa. xliv. 24, 
Thus far is consistent: The Lord^ in the third person, is the 
antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative in the 
• third person: " I am the Lord , which Lord, or he that maketh 
all things " If J were made the antecedent, the relative and 
verb should agree with it in the first person: as, u I am the 
Lord, that make all things, that stretch forth the heavens 
alone." But should it follow ; " That nfiveadeth abroad the 
earth by myself;" there would arise a confusion of persons* 
a manifest solecism. 

. RULE VIII. 

Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, be- 
longs to a substantive, expressed or understood : as, 
u He is a good, as well as a wise man;" " Few ar hap- 
py ;" that is, " persons ;" " This is a pleasant walk : that 
is, u This walk is^ &c. 

Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with their 
substantives : as, u This book, these books ; that 
e sorts ; another road, other roads," 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Rale 8.- 

1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhi- 
bited. " I have not travelled this twenty years ; <; these. 
twenty." " I am not recommending these kind of suffer- 
ings ;" " this kind." " Those set of books was a valuable 
present ;" " that set." 

// 1. The word means in the singular number, and the 
/phrases, <s By this means" il By that means," are used by 
our best and most correct writers ; namely, Bacon, Tiilot- 
son, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, &c.*ytThey are, 
indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would appear 
awkward, if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and 
say. " By this mean ; by that mean ; it was by a mean ,•" al- 
though it is more agreeable to the general analogy of the 
language. " The word means (says Priestley) belongs to 

* "By this means, he had them the more at vantage, being tired and ha- 
' rassed with a long march/* Bacon. 

<( By this means one great restraint from doing evil, would be taken 
away." — " And this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue."— 
By that means they have rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

6i It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means 
securing the continuance of his goodness." — u A good character, when es- 
tablished, should not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of 
doing still further good." Atterbury. 

iS My this means they are happy in each other." — " He by that means 
preserves his superiority." • Addison. 

" Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 

(i Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 

Dean Sivijt. 

i: There is no means of escaping the persecution." — " Faith is not only a 
means of obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young* 

"He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing 
power." Lord Lyttleton s Henry II, 

" John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded 
for his safety." Goldsmith. 

"Lest this means should fail." — "By means of ship-money, the late 
king,' he. — " The only means of securing a durable peace." Hume. 

(S By this means there was nothing Jeft to the parliament of Ireland,' 1 kc. 

Blackstone. 

«* By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their mas- 
ters." Dr. Robertson. 

" By this means they bear witness to each other." Burke. 

u By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." 

Dr. Blair. 

"A magazine, which, has by this means, contained, Sec."— -" Birds, in 
general, procure their food by means of their beak," 9 Dr. Paley 



Rule 8.] SYNTAX. 14G 

the class of wordf, which do not change their teimination on 
account of number ; for it is used alike in both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following 
sentences : " Though he did not succeed, he gained the 
approbation of his country ; and with this amends he was 
content." " Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the 
sacrifices of interest." " In return, he received the thanks 
of his employers, and the present of a large estate: these 
were ample amends for all his labours." " We have de- 
scribed the rewards of vice: the good man's amends are of 
a different nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like 
the word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the 
singular number, as it is derived from the French amende, 
though now it is exclusively established in the plural form. 
If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be applied in 
the singular, because it is derived from the French moyen, 
the same kind of argument may be advanced in favour of 
the singular amende ; and the general analogy of the lan- 
guage may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the fol- 
lowing-remark on the subject before us : " No persons of 
taste will, I presume, venture so far to violate the present 
usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the generality 
of readers, as to say, " By this mea?i, by that mean" 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means 
in the singular number. They do not, however, speak deci* 
sivcly on the point ; but rather dubiously, and as if they knew 
that they were questioning eminent authorities, as well as 
general practice. That they were not decidedly against the 
application of this word to the singular number, appears 
from their own language: " Whole sentences, whether sim- 
ple or compound, may become members of other sentences 
by means of some additional connexion ." — Dr. Lowth's /«•■ 
Production to English Grammar, 

" There is no other method of teaching that of- which 
any one is ignorant, but by means of something already 
known." — Dr. Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scrip- 
tures makes no use, as far as the compiler can discover, of 
the word mean ; though there are several instances to be 
found in it of the use of means, in the sense and connex < 



144 English grammaej [Rule 8 8 

ion contended for. "By this means thou shalt have no 
portion on this side the river." Ezra iv. 16. "That by 
means of death" Sec. Heb. ix. 15, It will scarcely be 
pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes did 
not accurately understand the English language ; or that 
they would have admitted one form of this word, and re- 
jected the other, had not their determination been con- 
formable to the best usage. An attempt therefore to reco- 
ver an old word, so long since disused by the most correct 
writers seems not likely to be successful ; especially as the 
rejection of it is not attended with any inconvenience 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a 
great majority of them, corroborated by general usage, 
forms, during its continuance, the standard of language; 
especially, if, in particular instances, this practice con- 
tinue, after objection and due consideration. Every con- 
nexion and application of words and phrases, thus sup- 
ported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to respect, 
if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 

. " Si volet usus 

** Quern x jenes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." HOTL 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less 
deviating from the general analogy of the language, than 
those before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly 
proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following. 
" None of them are varied to express the gender ;" and 
yet none originally signified 720 one. " He himself shall 
do the work :" here, what was at first appropriated to 
the objective, is now properly used as the nominative 
case. " You have behaved yourselves well :" in this 
example, the word you is put in the nominative case plu- 
ral, with strict propriety ; though formerly it was con- 
fined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the 
nominative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, 
thus established, it is the grammarian's business to sub- 
mit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the 
decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete 
modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and 
critical sagacity ; and, in some degree, obscure points 



Rule 8,] syntax. 145 

that are sufficiently clear and decided ; but he cannot rea- 
sonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the 
learner, in discovering and respecting the true standard 
and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly 
within the grammarian's province. Here, he may reason 
and remonstrate on the ground of derivation, analogy^ 
and propriety ; and his reasonings may refine and improve 
the language : but when authority speaks out and decides 
the point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, 
to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies then, under the 
limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the 
plainest analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, 
the use of the word mean in the old form has a very un- 
couth appearance : " By the mean of adversity we are often 
instructed. 5 ' " He preserved his health by mean of exer- 
cise." " Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency." 
They should be, " By means of adversity," &c. " By means 
of exercise," &c. " Frugality is one means;" &c. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive 
mean in the singular number, and in that number only, to 
signify.mediocrity, middle rate, &c. as, " This is a mean 
between the two extremes " But in the sense of instru- 
mentality, it has been long disused by the best authors^ 
and by almost every writer. 

ff This means and that means should be used only when 
they refer to what is singular ; these means and those means , 
when they respect plurals : as, " He lived temperately, 
and by this means preserved his health;" "The scholars 
were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; 
and by these means acquired knowledge, "*JL~~ 

We have enlarged on this article, that me young stu- 
dent may be led to reflect on a point so important, as that 
of ascertaining the standard of propriety in the use of 
language. 

ff 2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sen- 
tence, and there is occasion to mention them again for the 
sake of distinction, that is used in reference to the former, 
and Mw, in reference to the latter : as, " Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by rea- 

N 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule B, 

son : but for that, man would be inactive ; and but for this 
he would be active to no end."^A" 
// 3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every ? 
/'either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the 
singular number only: as, " The king of Israel, and Je- 
hoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne ;" 
" Every tree is known by its fruit :" unless the plural 
noun convey a collective idea : as, " Every six months ;" 
(i Every hundred years«^»The following phrases are 
exceptionable. " Let each'esteem others better than them- 
selves :*' It ought to be | himself" " The language 
should be both perspicuous and correct : in proportion 
as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language 
is imperfect :" it should be, " is wanting." "Every one 
of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of 
attachment:" " dears a regular date, and co?itains." "Eve- 
ry town and village were burned ; every grove and every 
tree were cut down:" "was burned, and was cut down." 
See the Key, p. 16: and the Octavo Grammar, Second 
edition, volume <Z,fiage 322. 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each : as, 
" The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, 
sat either of them on his throne;" " Nadab and Abihu, 
the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer.!^ Each 
signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either 
properly signifies only the one or the other of them taken 
disjunctively. 

In the course of this work, some examples will appeal 
of erroneous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with 
respect to grammatical construction : but it may be proper 
to remark, that notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, 
the Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate gram- 
matical composition that we have in the English language. 
The authority of several eminent grammarians might be 
adduced in support of this assertion ; but it may be suffi- 
cient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, " The 
present translation of the Bible, is the best standard of the 
^English language." 

II. adjectives. 

y4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad 
verbs : as, " indifferent honest ; excellent well ; miserable 



# 



Rule 8.] syntax. 147 

poor ;" instead of" indifferently honest : excellently well ; 
miserably poor. V " He behaved himself conformable to 
that great example ;" " conformably." " Endeavour to 
live hereafter suitable to a person in thy station ;" " suit- 
ably " " I can never think so very mean of him ;'* 
« meanly." " He describes this river agreeable to the 
common reading:" " agreeably " " Agreeable to my pro- 
mise, I now write :" " agreeably " " Thy exceeding great 
reward :" When united to an adjective, or adverb not 
ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it : as, 
u exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" " exceeding* 
ly well, exceedingly more active :" but v/hen it is joined 
to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly 
is omitted: as, u Some men think exceeding clearly, and 
reason exceeding forcibly: 53 " She appeared, on this oc- 
casion, exceeding lovely." " He acted in this business 
bolder than was expected :" " They behaved the noblest^ 
because they were disinterested." They should have been, 
" more boldly; most boldly." — The adjective pronoun such 
is often misapplied : as, " He was such an extravagant 
young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few 
years :" it should be, " so extravagant a young man?* 
" I never before saw such large trees :" " saw trees so 
large." When we refer to the species or nature of a 
thing, the word such is properly applied : as, " Such a 
temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified, 
we use the word so : as, " So bad a temper is seldom 
found." 

^''Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives: as, 
i; The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suit- 
ably to his offence;" " suitable.*X " They were seen wan- 
dering about solitarily and distressed ;" " solitary " U He 
lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and 
religion ;" " agreeable." " The study of syntax should be 
previously to that of punctuation ;" "previous"* 

yS/5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided : such as, "A worser conduct ;" "On lesser hopes ;" 
"A more serener temper ;" « The most straitest sect ;" "A 
more superior work." They should be, " worse conduct;" 

* For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is to be 
ased, see English Exercises, Sixteenth, or any subsequent edition, p. 140, 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 8. 

" less hopes;" « a more serene temper ; 5? " the straitest 
sect ;" " a superior work.'/f 

z^6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative sig- 
nification, do not properly admit of the superlative or com- 
parative form superadded : such as, " Chief, extreme, 
perfect, right, universal, supreme," &c. ; which are some- 
times improperly written, " Chiefest, extremcst, perfect- 
est, rightest, most universal, most supreme,^ &x. The fol- 
lowing expressions are therefore improper?* " He some 
times claims admission to the chiefest offices." ""The 
quarrel became so universal and national ;" " A method 
of attaining the Tightest and greatest happiness." The 
phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c. 
are incorrect ; because they imply that one thing is less 
perfect, less extreme, Sec. than another, which is not pos- 
sible. 
^7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the 
degrees of comparison are applied and construed. The 
following are examples of wrong construction in this re- 
spect : " This noble nation hath, of all others* admitted 
fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here construed 
precisely as if it were the superlative. It should be 5 
"This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than 
any other .V We commonly say, " This is the weaker 
of the two ;" or, " The weakest of the two :" but the 
former is the regular mode of expression, because 
there are only two things compared. "The vice of co- 
vetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any 
other." " He celebrates the church of England as the 
most perfect of all others." Both these modes of expres- 
sion are faulty : we should not say, " The best of any 
man," or, " The best of any other man," for " the best 
of men," The sentences may be corrected by substituting 
the comparative in the room of the superlative. " The 
vice, Sec. is what enters deeper into the soul than any 
other." " He celebrates &c. as more perfect than any 
other." It is also possible to retain the superlative, and. 
render the expression grammatical. " Covetousness, of 
all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." He celebrates, 
6cc. as the most perfect of all churches." These sentences 
contain other errors, against which it is proper to caution 
the learner. The words deeper and deepest, being intended 



Rule 8.1 syntax. 149 

for adverbs, should have been more deeply, 7?iost deeply. 
The phrases more perfect, and most perfect, are impro- 
per; because perfection admits of no degrees of compa- 
rison. We may say nearer or nearest to perfection, or 
more or less imperfect. 

^S. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated 
from their substantives, even by words which modify their 
meaning, and make but one sense with them: as, "A large 
enough number surely. " It should be, " A number large 
enough.^ " The lower sort of people are good enough 
judges of one not very distant from them." 



v The adjective is usually placed before its substantive: 
as, " A generous man ; " How amiable a woman 1" The 
instances in which it comes after the substantive, are the 
following. 

^lst, When something depends upon the adjective; and 
when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry ; as, " A 
man generous to his enemies jJ^C" Feed me with food con- 
venient for me;" " A tree three feet thick " " A body of 
troops fifty thousand strong ;" " The torrent tumbling 
through rocks abrupt ." 

^2d, When the adjective is enaphatical : as, " Alexander 
the Great ;" " Lewis the Bold $X^« Goodness infinite ,•" 
'• Wisdom unsearchable" 

z^Sd, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : 
as, " A man just, wise, and charitable ;" " A woman 
modest, sensible, and virtuous." 

^4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb: 
as, " A boy regularly studious ;" "A girl unaffectedly 
modest." 

A5th, When the verb to be, in any of its variations, 
comes between a substantive and an adjective, the adjec- 
tive may frequently either precede or follow it: as, " The 
man is happy; or, happy is the man who makes virtue his 
choice:" " The interview was delightful; or, " delightful 
was the interview." 

^6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance 
of a substantive placed after an active verb: as, ■' Vanity 
often renders its possessor desflicable.^cln an excla* 

N2 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 8* 

tnatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the 
substantive; as, " How despicable does vanity often ren- 
ders its possessor !" 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force in 
placing the adjective before the verb, and the substantive 
immediately after it: as, " Great is the Lord ! just and 
true are thy ways, thou King of saints !" 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a 
number of particulars comprehended under it. " Ambi- 
tion, interest, honour, all concurred." Sometimes a sub- 
stantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding par- 
ticulars, is used in conjunction with this adjective: as, 
u Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers? 
patriots, all parties , concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will some* 
times properly associate with a singular noun: as, " Our 
desire, your intention, their resignation." This associa- 
tion applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than 
to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to 
the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one 
compounded word, whence they often take another ad- 
jective, and sometimes a third, and so on: as, " An old 
man ; a good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old 
man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it 
is, in many instances, put as if it were absolute ; especially 
where the noun has been mentioned before, or is easily 
understood, though not expressed: as, "I often survey 
the green fields, as I am very fond of green ;" " The wise, 
'the virtuous the honoured, famed : and great," that is, 
" persons " " The twelve," that is, " apostles;" " Have 
compassion on the poor ; be feet to the lame y and eyes to 
the blind." 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, 
the word so used is sometimes unconnected with the sub- 
stantive to which it relates ; sometimes connected with it 
by a hyphen ; and sometimes joined to it, so as to make 
the two words coalesce. The total separation is proper, 
when either of the two words is long, or when they can- 
not be fluently pronounced as one word: as, an adjective 
pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cistern: the hyphen is 



Rule 9.] syntax. 151 

used, when both the words are short, and are readily- 
pronounced as a single word: as, coal-mine, corn-mill, 
fruit-tree : the words coalesce, when they are readily pro- 
nounced together ; have a long established association ; 
and are in frequent use : as, honeycomb, gingerbread, 
inkhorn, Yorkshire. 
/f Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has 
another adjective joined to it: 'as, "The chief good;" 
rt The vast immense of space. 2 ^— 

^ When an adjective has a preposition before it, the sub- 
stantive being understood, it takes the nature of an adverb, 
and is considered as an adverb : as, " In general, in par- 
ticular, in haste," 8cc. ; that is, " Generally, particularly, 
hastily."^ 

Mnonv was formerly used as the plural of enough : but 
it is now obsolete. 

HULE IX. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular 
number only, individually or collectively : as, 4C A 
Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." The definite 
article the may agree with nouns in the singular and plu- 
ral number : as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used,* 
they should be justly applied, according to their distinct 
nature : as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea is green ; a lion 
is bold." 

^It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or 
limit the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one sin- 
gle thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which: the 
determines which it is, or of many, which they are^<. 

The following passage will serve as an example or the 
different uses of a and the, and of the force of the substan- 
tive without any article. " Man was made for society, 
an,d ought to extend his good will to all men: but a man 
will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the 
men, with whom he has the most frequent intercourse ; 
and enter into a still closer union with the man whose tem- 
per and disposition suit best with his own." 



io2 English grammar. [Rule 9. 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of 
some use to exhibit a few instances: " And I persecuted 
this way unto the death. " The apostle does not mean any 
particular sort of death, but death in general: the definite 
article therefore is improperly used : it ought to be " unto 
death," without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide 
you into all truth ;" that is, according to this translation, 
" into all truth whatsoever, into truth of ail kinds;/' very 
different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the 
original, " into all the truth ;" that is$ " into all evangelical* 
truth, all truth necessary for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be 
" the wheel," used as an instrument for the particular pur- 
pose of torturing criminals. " The Almighty hath given 
reason to a man to be a light unto him:" it should rather 
be, "to man" in general, " This day is salvation come 
to this house, forasmuch as he also is the son of Abraham:" 
it ought to be, " a son of Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance 
of the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the 
English language in this respect ; which, by means of its 
two articles, does most precisely determine the extent of 
signification of common names. 

// i. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by 
the use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He be- 
haved with a little reverence;" my meaning is positive. 
If I say, " He behaved with little reverence ;" my mean- 
ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, 
or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I rather 
praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him^sfor the 
sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may 
better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before 
nouns of number. When I say, " There were a few men 
with him ;" I speak diminutively, and mean to represent 
them as inconsiderable : whereas, wh^n I say; "There 
were a few men with him;" I evidently intend to make 
the most of them. 

^2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article 
to the former of two words in the same construction ; 
though the French never fail to repeat it in this case. 



Rule 10.] syntax. 153 

^ There were many hours, both of the night and day, 
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary 
thought." It might have been " of the night and of the 
day. VAnd, for the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the 
article in a series of epithets. " He hoped that this title 
would secure him an ample and an independent authority." 
4f 3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we 
frequently omit the articles, which might be inserted with 
propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. " At 
worst, time might be gained by this expedient." "At the 
worst," would have been better in this place^<^' Give me 
here John Baptist's head." There would have been more, 
dignity in saying, "John the Baptist's head:" or, " The" 
head of John the Baptist." 

^T he article the has sometimes a good effect in distin- 
guishing a person by an epithet. " In the history of Henry 
the fourthly Father Daniel, we are surprised at not find- 
ing him the great man."JJ<if I own I am often surprised that 
he should have treated so coldly, a man so much the gen- 
tleman." 

^ This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of 
the French, for the pronoun possessive: as, " He looks* 
him full in Meface ;" that is, " in his face.^C^' In his pre- 
sence they were to strike the forehead on the ground ;" 
that is, " their foreheads." 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat 
wQtie same article, when the adjective, on account of any 
clause depending upon it, is put after the substantive. " Of 
all the considerable governments among the Alps, a com- 
monwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the 
poverty of those countries." " With such a specious title 
as that of blood, which with the multitude is always a 
claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended.'* 
" They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to 
be replaced." 

RULE X. 

One substantive governs another, signifying a differ- 
ent thing, in the possessive or genitive case : as, " My 
father's house;" "Man's hap^ness j" w Virtue's re- 

ward." 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 10. 

y When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing 
as the first, there is no variation of case : as, " George* 
king of Great Britain, elector of Hanover," &c. ; " Pom- 
pey contended with Caesar, the greatest general ffl his 
time;" " Religion, the support of adversity, adorns pros- 
perity." Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in a/i~ 
position to each otherXThe interposition of a relative and" 
verb will sometimes break the construction: as, " Pompey 
contended with Caesar, who was the greatest general of 
his time." Here the word general is in the nominative 
case, governed by note 4, under rule xi. \. 

# The preposition q/joined to a substantive, is not always 
equivalent to the possessive case. It is only so, when the 
expression can be converted into the regular form of the 
possessive case. We can say, " The reward of virtue," 
and "Virtue's reward:" but though it is proper to say! 
" A crown of gold," we canot convert the expression into 
the possessive case, and say, " Gold's crown. '*>*C^ 

^(^Substantives govern pronouns 'as well as nouns in the 
possessive case: as, " Every tree is known by its fruit ;" 
" Goodness brings its reward ;" " That desk is mine." 
tf The genitive it* is often improperly used for *Ms or it is** 
as, " Its my book :" instead of " It is my book." 
^The pronoun^/s, when detached from the noun to which 
at relates- is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun. 
but as the genitive case of the personal pronoun : as, 
" This composition is his." " Whose book is that?" "HisALe 
If we used the noun itself, we should say, " This cornpo-^ 
sition is John's." "Whose book is that?" "Eliza's. 5 ' 
The position will be still more evident, when we consider 
that both the pronouns in the following sentences must 
have a similar construction: " Is it her or his honour that 
is tarnished ?" " It is not hers y but Ms." 

fl Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive 

'case stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed 
being understood: as, " I called at the bookseller's," that 
is, "at the bookseller's shopT^c^ 

^ 1. If several nouns come together in the genitive case* 
the apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and under- 
stood to the rest: as, " John and Eliza's books:" " This 
was my father, mother, and uncle's advice. 'jxJBut when 
my words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased 



Rule 10.] syntax* 155 

pause, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to 
each: as, " They are John's as well as Eliza's books;" 
iC I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apotheca- 
ry's assistance." 

2^2. In poetry, the additional 5 is frequently omitted, but 
ihe apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in sub- 
stantives of the plural number ending in i : as, " The 
wrath of Pelus' sons.^CJhis seems not so allowable in 
prose ; which the following erroneous examples will de- 
monstrate: " Moses' minister;" " Phinehas' wife ;" " Fes- 
tus came into Felix' room." " These answers were made 
to the witness' questions." But in cases which would 
give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the diffi- 
culty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even in 
prose: as, " For righteousness' sake ;" " For conscience' 
sake." 

#3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly 
awkward between a genitive case, and the word which 
usually follows it: as, " She began to extol the farmer's, 
as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought 
to be, " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she 
called him.'VC 

& 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name 
and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is 
descriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion 
come doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case 
should be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to 
them both. Thus, some would say ; " I left the parcel at 
Smith's the bookseller ;" others, " at Smith the booksel- 
ler's:" and perhaps others, " at Smith's the bookseller's." 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English 
idiom ; and if the addition, consists of two or more words, 
the case seems to be less dubious: as, " I left the parcel 
at Smith's, the bookseller and station eiy^JSut as this sub- 
ject requires a little further explanation to make it intelligi- 
ble to the learners, we shall add a few observations tending 
to unfold its principles. 

JfA phrase in which the words are so connected and de- 
pendent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, 
necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end 
of the phrase: as, " Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king 
of Great Britain's , s J< v ^That is the duke of Bridgewater's 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 



10. 



canal ;" iC The bishop of LandafF's excellent book ;" " The 
lord mayor of London's authority ;" " The captain of the 
guard's house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick 
succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to 
give the sign of the genitive a similar situation ; especially 
if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed: as, 
" The emperor Leopold's;" •■" Ddonysius the tyrant's;" 
iQ For David my servant's sake ;" " Give me John the 
Baptist's head ;" " Paul the apostle's advice." But when 
a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed ; 
and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it 
appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied to 
the first genitive, and understood to the other : as, " I re- 
side at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor ;" 
" Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar's, the 
greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences*; 
it would be very awkward to place the sign, either at the 
end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one 
alone: " These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and 
prophet of the Jewish people ;" " We staid a month at 
lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his country, and the 
friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive case- 
may very properly be understood at the end of these 
members, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being 
a common construction in our language ; as the learner 
will see by one or two examples: " They wished to sub- 
mit, but he did not:" that is, " he did not wish to submit; 
" He said it was their concern, but not his ;" that is, " not 
his concern'' 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last 
clause only, we shall perceive that a resting-place is want- 
ed, and that the connecting circumstance is placed too re- 
motely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable : as, 
iC Whose glory did he emulate ?" " He emulated Caesar, 
the greatest general of antiquity's ;" "These psalms are 
David, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish peo- 
ple's." It is much better to say, " This is Paul's advice^ 
the Christian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," 
than, " This is Paul the Christian hero, and great apostle 
of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the applica- 
tion of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in ap- 



Rule 10.] SYNTAX. 157 

position, would be generally harsh and displeasing, and per- 
haps in some cases incorrect : as, " The emperor's Leo- 
pold's ;" " King George's ;" « Charles the second's ;" " The 
parcei was left at Smith's the bookseller's and stationer's." 
The rules which we have endeavoured to elucidate, will 
preven* the inconvenience of both these modes of expres- 
sion ; and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, and con- 
sistent with the idiom of the language. 
//$. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound, 
so that we daily make more use of the particle of to express 
the same relation. There is something awkward in the 
following sentences, in which this method has not been taken, 
" The general, in the army's name,.pubiished a declaration." 
"The commons' vote." "The lords' house.'' "Unless 
he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were 
certainly better to say, " In the name of the army ;" " The 
vote of the commons;" " The house of lords ;" The con- 
dition of the kingdom. ^><^It is rather harsh to use two 
English genitives with tne same substantive: as, " Whom 
he acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." 
"The pleasure of the pope and the king," would have been 
better." 

^We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent 
on one another, and connected by the preposition of applied 
to each of them: as, " The severity of the distress of the 
son of the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode of 
expression is not to be recommended. It would be better 
to say, " The severe distress of the king's son, touched the 
nation.'^ We have a striking instance of this laborious 
mode of expression, in the following sentence: " Of some 
of the books of each of these classes of literature, a cata- 
logue will be given at the end of the work." 
^6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination 
and the preposition of; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton's,''^ Sometimes indeed, unless we throw the sen- 
tence into another forrrirthis method is absolutely necessary, 
in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of 
property, strictly so called, which is the most important of 
the relations expressed by the genitive case: for the expres- 
sions, " This picture of my friend," and " This picture of 
xny friefld's," suggest very different ideas. The latter onl^ 
is that of property in the strictest sense. The idea would, 

O 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 10. 

doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by saying, "This 
picture belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term 
it, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially 
in a grave style, it is generally omitted. Except to prevent 
ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases which 
suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same 
kind. In the expressions, " A subject of the emperor's ;" 
"A sentiment of my brother's ;" more than one subject, 
and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to the possessor. 
But when this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily 
supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, 
should not be used: as,. li This house of the governor, is 
very commodious;" " The crown of the king was stolen;" 
" That privilege of the scholar was never abused." (See 
page 5L) But after all that can be said for this double ge- 
nitive, as it is termed, some grammarians think that it 
would be better to avoid the use of it altogether, and to give 
the sentiment another form of expression. 
J^ 7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with 
a participle of the present *ense, is used as one name, or 
to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which 
it depends may be put in the genitive case ; thus, instead 
of saying, "What is the reason of this person dismissing 
his servant so hastily^" that is, " What is the reason of 
this person in dismissing his servant so hastily," we may 
say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason of this 
person's dismissing of his servant so hastily f^XJust as we 
say, *• What is he reason of this person's hasty aisrnission 
of his servant ?" So also, we say, " I remember it being 
reckoned a great exploit ;" or more properly, " 1 remember 
its being reckoned " &c. The following sentence is correct 
and proper: " Much will depend on the pupil's composing,* 
but more on his reading frequently." It would not be ac* 
curite to say, " Much will depend on the pupil "composing^ 
&c. We also properly say ; " This will be the effect of the 
pupiVs composing frequently ;" instead of, " Of the pupil 
composing frequently." 



Rule 11.] SYNTAX. 159 



RULE XI. 

Active verbs govern the objective case : as, " TrutK % 
ennobles her;" " She comforts we;" u They support 
us ;" " Virtue rewards her followers." 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, 
usually goes before the verb ; and the objective case, de- 
noting the object, follows the verb active ; and it is the order 
that determines the case in nouns ; as, " Alexander con- 
quered the Persians." Bui the fironoun having a -proper 
form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when it isin the 
objective case, placed before the verb ; and, when it is in the 
nominative case, follows the object and verb; as, "Whom 
ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its 
proper case and government to be neglected : as in the fol- 
lowing instances: " Who should I esteem more than the 
wise and good ?" " By the character of those who you*' 
choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." 
"Those are the persons who he thought true to'his inte- 
rests." u Who should I see the other day but my old friend."v 
M Whosoever the court favours." In all these places it* 
ought to be whom, the relativ%being governed in the ob- 
jective case by the verbs " esteem, choose, thought," Sec. 
44 He, who under all proper circumstances, has the boldness 
to spetk truth, choose for thy friend ;" It should be^ " him 
who," Sec. 

JfVerbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and 
pronouns. " He sleeps ; they muse" &c. are not transitive. 
They are, therefore, not followed by an objective case, spe- 
cifying the object of an action. But when this case, or an 
object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may 
carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is af- 
fected by a preposition or some other word understood: as, 
u He resided many years [that is,/or o? during many years] 
in that sueet ;^^' He rode several miles [that is, for ox 
through the space of several miles] on that day ;" ''He lay, 
an hou. [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the 
phrases,-'" To dream a dream," 4< To live a virtuous life,' 5 
" To run a race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 11. 

child," the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, and 
may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated transi- 
tive verbs. 

,//!. Some writers, however, use certain neuter vebs as 
if they were transitive, putting after them the objective 
case, agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal 
verbs ; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the 
English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imita- 
ted The following are some instances of this practice* 
" Refienting him of his design. 55 " The king soon found 
reason to refient him of his provoking such dangerous ene- 
mies. 5 "^" The popular lords did, not fail to enlarge them- 
selves on the ^ subject. 57 "The nearer his successes 
afifiroached turn to the throne 55 " Go fiee thee mvay into 
the land of Judah, 55 ' < 4 I think it by no means a fit and de- 
cent thing to -vie charities/' Sec. " They have spent their 
whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane 
chronology." 

/}%- Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made 
nueter; as, "I must firemise with three circumstances. 5 * 
fi£ Those that think to ingratiate with him by calumniat- 
ing xne.'X 

4/ 3. The neuter verb is varied like the active; but, having 
in some degree the nature of the passive, it admits, in many 
instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter 
signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort of 
motion, or change of place or condition ; as, " I am come; 
I was gone ; I am grown ; I was fallen. J jV The following 
examples, however, appear to be erroneous, in giving thg 
neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active one. " The \ 
rule of our holy religion, from which we are infiniteiy 
swerved." " The whole obligation of that law and cove- 
nant was also ceased," " Whose number was novV amounted 
to three hundred." " This mareschal, upon some discon- 
tent, was entered into a conspiracy against his master." 
" At the end of a campaign," when half the men are deserted 
or killed." It should be, a have swerved, had ceased," &c. 
/j{4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the 
<same case after it, as that which next precedes it : " / am 
he whom they invited ;" is It may be (or might have been) 
he> but it cannot be (or could not have been) /;" " It is 
impossible to be they ;" " It seems to have been he, who 



Rule 12.] t syntax. 161 

conducted himself so wisely ;" " It appeared to be she that 
transacted the business ;" " I understood it to be him £^ 
" I believe it to have been them ;" " We at first took it to 
be her j but were afterwards convinced that it was not sb$>" 
" He is not the person who it seemed he was." " He is 
really the person who he appeared to be." "She is not 
now the woman whom they represented her to have been." 
" Whom do you fancy him to be?" By these examples, it 
appears that this substantive verb has no government of 
case, but serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the 
cases ; so that the two cases which, in the construction of 
the sentence, are xhe.next before and after it, must always 
be alikeo Pec haps this subject will be more intelligible to^ 
the learner, by observing, that the words in the cases pre- 
ceding and following the verb to be> may be said to be in 
apposition to each other. T%us, in the sentence, " I under- 
stood it to be him," the words it and him are in apposition ; 
that is, " they refer to the same thing, and are in the same 
case." 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, 
and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case:/' It might have 
been him, but there is no proof of it;" "Though I was 
blamed, it could not have been me j" " I saw one whom I 
took to be she ;" " She is the person who I understood it to 
have been ;" " Who do you think me to be ?" " Whom dc? 
men say that I am ?" « And whom think ye that I am ?"— > 
See the Octavo Grammar, 

^Passive verbs which signify naming, Sec. have the same 
case before and after them : as, " He was called Caesar ; 
She was named Penelope^ Homer is styled the prince of 
poets ; James was created a duke ; The general was saluted 
emperor ; The professor was appointed tutor to the prince." 
^ The auxiliary let governs the objective case ; as, "Let 
film beware ;" " Let us judge candidly;" "Let them not 
presume ;" "Let George study his lesson.*^# 

. RULE XII. 

One verb governs another that follows it, or depends 
upon it, in the infinitive mood : as, " Cease to do evil % 
learn to do well;" " We should be prepared to render 
an account of our actions," 

\ 2 



*62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 12« 

^# The preposition to f though generally used before the 
4 latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted : as, " I heard 
him say it 5" instead of " to say it." 

7 The verbs which have commonly other verbs following 
them in the infinitive mood, without the sign to y are Bid* 
dare, need, make, see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not used as 
an auxiliary ; and perhaps few others 1 as, " I bade him da 
it ;" " Ye dare not do it ;" < k I saw him do it ;" " I heard 
him say it ;" "Thou lettest him go.'V-^ 

/f 1. In the following passages, the word to % the sign of the 
'infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic charac- 
ters, is superfluous and improper, " I have observed some 
satirists to use," &c. " To see so many to make so little 
conscience of so great a sin.^jf^l 4 It cannoi but be a delight- 
ful spectacle to God and angels, to see a young person, be- 
sieged by powerful temptations on every side, to acquit 
himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the 
most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower 
of his age, that is courted by pleasures and honours, by the 
devil, and all the bewitching vanities of the world, to reject 
all these, and £0 cleave steadfastly unto God." 
# This mood has also been improperly used in the following 
^places: "I am not like other men, to envy the talents I 
cannot reach. 9 ' "Grammarians have denied, or at least 
doubted them to be genuine ;" " That all our doings may 
be ordered by thy governances to do always what is righteous 
in thy sight. J 0*v^ 



f The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, 
substantives % and participles : as, " He is eager to learn f 
." She is worthy to be loved ;" " They have a desire to im- 
prove ;" "Endeavouring to persuade. ^ 
f The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substan- 
tive, expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, 
as the participle has the nature of an adjective. Thus the 
infinive mood does the office of a substantive in different 
cases : in the nominative : as, " To play is pleasant :" in 
the objective; as ? " Boys love to filay p^For to will is 



Rule 13.] syntax. 163 

present with me ; but to perform that which is good, I find 
not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or <ised in- 
ependently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the oiace 
of the conjunction that with the potential mood : as, *• To 
confess the truth, I was in fault ;" « To begin with the arst ; 
" To proceed ;" " To conclude ;" that is, " That I may con- 
fess," &c.v^ 

*^ RULE XILL 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of 
time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
should be observed. Instead of saying, iC The Lord 
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away ;" we should 
say, u The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away." 
Instead of w I remember the family more than twenty 
years ;" it should be, 4V I have remembered the family 
more than twenty years." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the manage^ 
ment of the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one 
another, so that they may be proper and consistent. The 
best rule that can be given, is this very general one : " To 
observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, 
however, be of use to give a few examples of irregular 
construction. " The last week I intended to have written^' 
is a very common phrase ; the infinitive being in the past 
time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is cer- 
tainly wrong ; for how long soever it now is since I thought 
of writing, "to write" was then present to me, and must 
still be considered as present, when I bring back that tim& 
and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, u The 
last week I intended to write." The following sentences 
are also erroneous : " I canfcot excuse the remissness of 
those whose business it should have been, as it certainly 
was their interest, to have interposed their good offices." 
" There were two circumstances which made it necessary 
for them to have lost no time." " History painters would 
have found it difficult to have invented such a species of 
beings." They ought to be, ll to interpose, to lose, to in* 
vent/ 9 " On the morrow, because he should have known 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 13, 

the certainty, wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he 
loosed him." It ought to be, " because he would know," 
or rather, " being willing to know." 

" The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might re^ 
ceive my sight.'' (i If by any means I might attain unto the 
resurrection of the dead ;" " may" in both places, would 
have been better. " From his biblical knowledge, he ap- 
pears to study the Scriptures with great attention ;" " to 
have studied" Sec. " I feared that I should hav^lost it, be- 
fore I arrived at the city ;" " should lose it" " I had rather 
walk ;" It should be, 4< I would rather walk." 

It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could per- 
form it :" it should be, " If I could have performed it ;" or, 
" It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must 
recollect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and 
imperfect tenses often carry with them a future tense ; and 
that the auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, 
are used to express the present and future as well as the 
past: for which see page 75. 

if 1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the in- 
finitive mood in the following form ; " to write," u to be 
writing," and "to.be written," always denote something 
contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or sub- 
sequent to it ; but when verbs of that mood are expressed 
as follows ; " To have been writing," " to have written," 
and "to have been written," they always denote something 
antecedent to the time of the governing venbi^This remark 
is thought to be of importance ; for if duly attended to, it 
will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative 
application of these tenses. 

AfThz following sentence is properly and analogically 
•expressed : " 1 found him better than I expected to find 
him." " Expected to have found him," is irreconcileable 
alike to grammar and to sensepflndeed, all verbs expressive 
of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be 
followed by the present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. 
Every person would perceive an error in this expression ; 
" It is long since I commanded him to have done it:" Yet 
" expected to have found" is no better. It is as clear that 
the finding must be posterior to the expectation, as that the 
obedience must be posterior to the command. 



Rule 13.] syntax. 165 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety 
put in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood ; " It would 
have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I reflected 
upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence." 
As the message* in this instance, was antecedent to the 
pleasure, and not contemporary with it, the verb expressive 
of the message must denote that antecedence, by being in 
the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and the 
pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subse- 
quent verb would, with equal propriety, have been put in 
the present of the infinitive : as, " It would have afforded 
me great pleasure, to be the messenger of such intelligence*" 
In the former instance the phrase in question is equivalent 
to these words ; " If I had been the messenger;" in the 
latter instance, to this expression ; " Being the messen- 
ger." — For a further discussion of this subject, see the 
Eleventh edition of the Key to the Exercises, p. 60, and 
the Octavo Grammar, Rule xiii. 

^It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to ex- 
press the past time with the defective verb ought y the 
perfect of the infinitive must always be used : as, u He 
ought to have done it." When we use this verb, this is 
the only possible way to distinguish the past from the pre* 
sent. V^ 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we 
can produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; 
amongst whom are Lowth and Campbell. But there are 
some writers on grammar, who strenuously maintain, that 
the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be iivjhe past 
tense, when the verb which governs it, is in the past time. 
Though this cannot be admitted, in the instances whiGh 
are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a 
similar. nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many 
cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the govern- 
ing verb, it would be proper and allowable. We may say; 
"From a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to 
have studied Homer with great care and judgment" It 
would be proper also to say, " From his conversation, he 
afifiears to have studied Homer with great care and judg- 
ment ;" « That unhappy man is supposed to have died by 
violence." These examples are not only consistent with 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 13. 

our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense 
of the governing verb only, that marks what is called the 
absolute time ; the tense of the verb governed, marks solely 
its rela ive time with respect to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infini- 
tive mood have no tenses, no relative distinctions of pre- 
sent, past, and future, is inconsistent with just grammati- 
cal views of the subject. That these verbs associate 
with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having 
no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the go- 
verning verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, 
the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that 
period, and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the 
time of the infinitive may be before, alter, or the same as, 
the time of the governing vetb, according as the thing 
signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after or 
present with, the. thing denoted by the governing verb. 
It is, therefore, with great propriety, that tenses ..are as- 
signed 10 verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of tirrv^ 
from which they are computed, is of no consequence ^ 
since present, past, and future, are completely applicable 
to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by 
remarking, ^hat though it is often proper to use fche per- 
fect of the infinitive after the governing verb, yet\here 
are particular cases, in which it would be better to give 
the expression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, 
" I wish to have writ- en to him sooner," " I th;n wished 
to have written to him sooner," ** He will one day wish 
to have written sooner ;" it would be more perspicuous 
and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of 
good writers to say ; Ci I wish that 1 had written to him 
sooner," ** I then wished that I had written to him soon- 
er," " He will one day wish that he had written sooner." 
Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there 
woulft still be numerousoccasions for the use of the past 
infinitive ; as we may perceive by a few examples. " It 
would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, to 
have found him wise and -irtuous." '* To have deferred 
his repentance longer wouiu have disqualified him for re- 
penting at all." * l They will then see, that to have faith- 



Rule 14.]. syntax. 167 

fully performed their duly, would have been their greatest 
consolation."* 



RULE XIV. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived: as, u I am weary 
with {tearing him;*'* u She" is instructing' us;" "The 
tutor is admonishing Charles.* 

£ 1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; 
for the present participle, with the definite article the be- 
fore it, becomes a substantive, and must have the preposi- 
tion of af er it ; as, " These are the rules of grammar, by 
the observing cf which, you may avoid mistakes^! would 
not be proper to say, " by the observing which ;" nor, "-by 
observing of which ;" but the phrase, without either article 
or preposition, would be right: as, " by observing which." 
The article a or an> has the same effect : as, " This was a 
betraying of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our ;f lan- 
guage, and from as plain a principle a,s any on which it is 
founded ; namely, that a word which 'has the article be- 
fore it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be 
a noun: and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construc- 
tion of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb* 
It is the participial termination of this sort of words that 
is apt. to deceive us, and make us- -treat them as if they 
were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly 
verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of 
this rule. u He was" sent to prepare the way by- preaching 
of repentance ;" it ought to be, "by the preaching of re- 
pentance ;" or, * 4 by preaching repentance." " By the con- 
tinual mortifying our corrupt affections:" it should be, " by 
the continual mortifying of" or, " by continually mortifying 
our corrupt affections. " " They laid out themselves to- 
wards the advancing and promoting the good of it;" to- 

* See Key to the English Exercises, Eleventh Ed. Rule xiii. The Note, 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 14. 

wards advancing and promoting the good." *' It is an 
overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow 
measure of our capacities ;*' " it is overvaluing ourselves," 
or, "an overvaluing of ourselves." M Keeping of one day 
in seven," &c. : it ought to be, " the keeping of one day ;" 
or, " keeping one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present par- 
ticiple and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in 
every instance, convey the same meaning as would be con- 
veyed by the participle without the article and preposition. 
4i He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the 
philosopher," is capable of a different sense from, " He 
expressed she pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher.'** 
When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of harmony or va- 
riety, to substitute, one of these phraseologies for the other, 
we 'should previously consider whether they are perfectly 
similar ip tfee sentiments they convey. 

a The same observations which have been made 're- 
ting the effect of the article and participle, appear to 
be applicable to the pronoun and participle, when they are 
similarly associated : as, u Much depends on their observing 
of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their ne- 
glecting of it," instead of u their observing the rule, and 
their neglecting it.y^We shall perceive this more clearly, 
if we substitute a noun for a pronoun ; as, " Much depends 
upon Tyre's observing of the rule," &c. But, as this con- 
struction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be 
better to express the sentiment in the following, or some 
other form : " Much depends on the rule's being observed ; 
and error will be the consequence of its being ?zeglected ;" 
or — " on observing the rule ; and — of neglecting it." This 
remark may be applied to several other modes of expres- 
sion to be found in this work ; which, though they are 
contended for as strictly correct, are not always the most 
eligible, on account of their unpleasant sound. See pages 
51. 70. 155—159. 
A/ We sometimes meet with expressions like the fol- 
/ lowing : u In forming of his sentences, he was very ex- 
act ;" " From calling of names, he proceeded to blows." 
But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, 
like articles and pronouns, convert the participle itself 



Rule 15.] SYNTAX. 16T9 

into the nature of a substantive ; as we have shown above in 
the phrase, "By observing whichX And yet the participle 
with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase 
in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, 
expressed or understood : as, "By promising much, and per- 
forming but little, we become despicable." " He studied to 
avoid expressing himself too severely" 

f%» As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are 
sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that 
they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 
rt He begun," for " he began ;" " he rua," for (< he ran ;" 
" He drunk," for " he drank ;" the participle being here used 
instead of the imperfect tense : and much more frequently 
the imperfect tense instead of the participle : as, " I had 
wrote," for "I had written :" "I was chose," for, "I was 
chosen ;" " I have eat," for," " I have eaten.^" His words 
were interwove with sighs ;" " were interwoven/^ 1. He would 
have spoke ;" u spoken" " He hath bore witness to his faithful 
Servants ;" " borne" " By this means he over-run his guide ;" 
" over-ran" " The sun has rose f " risen" " His constitu- 
tion has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be 
shook by such causes ;" " shaken" in both places. " They 
were verses wrote on glass ;" " written." " Philosophers have 
often mistook the source of true happiness :" it ought to be 
c * mistaken" 
f The participls ending in ed is often improperly con™ 
tracted by changing ed into t ; as, « In good behaviour, 
•he is not surpast by any pupil of the school." " She was 
much distrest." They ought to be " surpassed" " di$- 
fressed.'jr 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, 
tense, &c, require an appropriate situation in the sen- 
tence, viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after 
verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the auxi- 
liary and the verb : as, " He made a very sensible dis- 
course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly y and was at- 
tentively heard by the whole assembly/' 

P 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 15* 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may 
serve to illustrate the r<ule. " He must not expect to 
find study agreeable always';" " always agreeable." " We 
always find them ready when we want them ;- " we 
find them always ready/ 1 &c. " Dissertations on the 
prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled ;" " which 
have been remarkably" i( Instead of looking contemptu- 
ously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should 
look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better;""* 
u instead of looking down contemptuously , 8cc. we should 
thankfully look ufi," &c. " If thou art blessed naturally 
with a good memory, continually exercise it ;" * naturally 
blessed," Sec. '* exercise it continually." 
// Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before 
^the verb, or at some distance after it ; sometimes between 
the two auxiliaries; and sometimes after them both; as 
in the following examples. "Vice always creeps by de- 
grees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed 
fetters, by which we are at last completely bound. 9 f** 6 He 
encouraged the English Barons to carry their opposition 
jarther" <s Thcy compelled him to declare that he would 
abjure the realm for ever ;" instead of, " to carry far- 
ther their opposition ;" and " to abjure for ever the realm.!' 
" He has generally been reckoned an honest man." <c The 
book may always be had at such a place ; w in preference 
to " has been generally;" and " may be always." ** Theses 
rules will be clearly understood, after they have been di- 
ligently studied," are preferable to, " These rules will 
clearly be understood, after they have diligently beet* 
studied." 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears 
that no exact and determinate rule can be given for the 
placing of adverbs, on all occasions. The general rule may- 
be of considerable use; but the easy flow and perspicuity 
of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly 
regarded. 
/J The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as 
a word that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it 
precedes the verb and the nominative noun : as, " There 
is & person at the door :4»4>" There are some thieves in 
the house;" which would be as well, or better, express* 
ed by saying, " A person is at the door ;" " Some thieves 



Rule 15.] syntax. 171 

are in the house." Sometimes, it is made use of to give 
a small degree of emphasis to the sentence : as, " There 
■* was a man sent from God, whose name was John." When 
it is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows 
the verb and the nominative case: as, "The man stands 
fkereSl 

// 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb: as, 
* I never was there ;" " He never comes at a proper 
timeJ^^WTien an auxiliary is used, it is placed indiffer- 
ently, either before or after this adverb : as, " He was never 
seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time."-y£— » 

Never seems to be improperly used in the following 
passages. iC Ask me never so much dowry and gift." t€ If 
I make my hands never so clean." il Charm he never so 
wisely." The word " ever'* would be more suitable to 
the sense. 

ff 2. la imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of 
^>lace where, is often used instead of the pronoun relative 
and a preposition. " They framed a protestation, where 
they repeated all their former claims ;" i. e. a in which 
they repeated. '^^ The king was still determined to run 
forwards, in the same course where he was already, by* 
his precipitate career, too fatally advanced;" i.e. "in 
which he was." But it would be better to avoid this mode of 
expression. 

fr The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a prepo- 
sition ; for they signify, " from this place, from that place, 
from what place." It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, 
to be improper to join a preposition with them, because 
it is superfluous: as, "This is the leviathan, from whence 
the wits of our age are said to borrow their weapons yh^. 
**An ancient author prophesies from hence," But the 
origin of these words is little attended to? and the pre- 
position from so often used in construction with them, 
that the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and 
be disagreeable. 

// The adverbs here, there, were s are often improperly ap= 

/plied to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hi- 
ther, thither, whither : as, " He came here hastily ;" "They 
rode there with speed." They should be, " He came hither:" 
." They rode thither," &c.y*L 

// ? ; We have some examples of adverbs being user! far 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rules 16, If. 

substantives: "In 1687, he erected it into a community of 
regulars, since when> it has begun, to increase in those 
countries as a religious order ;" i. e. " since which timeSjr* 
Ci A little while and I shall not see you ;" i. e. " a short' 
time" "It is worth their while;" i. e. N it deserves their 
time and pains. 9 ' But this use of the word rather suits 
familiar than grave style. The same may be said of the 
phrase, "To do a thing anyhow j" i. e. " in any manner ;** 
or, '* somehow ,•" i. e. " in some manner." "Somehow, 
worthy as these people are, they are under the influence 
of prejudice." 

KULE XVI. 

Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or 
are equivalent to an affirmative : as, " Nor did they not 
perceive him ;" that is, u they did perceive him." " His 
language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical ';" that 
is, u it is grammatical." 

It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affir- 
mative, than by two separate negatives, Its in the former 
sentence : but when one of the negatives is joined to another 
word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form a , 
pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives 
instead of one; as in the following instances: "I never 
did repent of doing good, nor shall not now ;" * nor shall 
I now" "Never no imitator grew up to his author;" 
" never did any" &c. " I cannot by no means allow him 
what his argument must prove ;" "I cannot by any means/" 
6cc. or, " I can by no means." u Nor let no comforter ap- 
proach me j" " nor let any comforter," &c. " Nor is dan- 
ger ever apprehended in such a government, no more 
than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or 
earthquakes :" it should be, " any more" « Ariosto, Tasso, 
Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics^ 
"Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Rapha- 
el, was born in a republic. " 

RULE XVII, 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as 2 u I have 



Rule 17.] syntax, 173 

heard a good character of her?* From him that ft 
needy turn not away ;" u A word to the wise is sufficient 
for them;" " We may be good and happy without 
riches." 

The. following are examples of the nominative case be- 
ing used instead of the objective. " Who servest thou un- 
der ?" "Who do you speak to? 5 ' "We are still much at 
a loss who civil power belongs to:" "Who dost thou ask 
for W " Associate not with those who none can speak 
well of." In all these places it ought to be " who?n" 
See JVotel. 

jyThe prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly 
before the pronouns : as, " Give me the book ;" " Get 
me some paper;" that is, " tome ; for me." 4< Wo is me ;" 
i. e. 4i to me." " He was banished England ;" i. e, " from 
England.'wC*. 

/y\. The preposition is often separated from the relative 
which it governs: as, "Whom wilt thou give it to ?" in- 
stead of, " To whom wilt thou give it Mj££ He is an author 
whom I am much delighted with ;" " The world is too po- 
lite to shock authors with a truth, which generally their 
booksellers are the first that inform them of." This is an 
idiom to which our language is strongly inclined ; it pre- 
vails in common conversation, and suits very well with the 
familiar style in writing : but the placing of the preposi- 
tion before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more 
perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and 
elevated style. 

//%* Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, 
in order to connect different prepositions with the same 
noun: as, " To suppose the zodiac and planets to be 
efficient of and antecedent to> themselves." This, whe- 
ther in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inele- 
gant, and should generally be avoided.p^ln forms of law, 
and the like, where fulness and exactness of expression 
must take place of every other consideration, it may be 
admitted. 

// 3. Different relations, and different senses, must be 
Expressed by different prepositions^ though in conjunction 
with the same verb or adjective. Thus we say, " to 
converse with a person, ufion a subject, in a house 3 6cq»" 

P 2 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 17. 

We also say, ' ( We are disappointed of a thing/' when 
we cannnot get it, «< and disappointed in it," when we have 
It, and find it does not answer our expectations. But two 
different prepositions must be improper in the same con- 
struction, and in the same sentence.* as, "The combat be- 
tween thirty French against twenty English.' y<C 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to. which of two pre- 
positions the preference is to be given, as both are used 
promiscuously, and custom has not decided in favour of 
either of them. We say, " Expert at," and " expert in 
a thing." " Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes ;" 
CA Expert in deception." 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are 
generally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from 
which the nouns are derived : as, " A compliance with" 
" to comply with /' « A disposition to tyranny," "disposed to 
tyranize." 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposU 
iion is of great importance, we shall select a considerable num- 
ber of examples tfranpropriety, in the application of this part 
of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition o/— " He is resolved 
^f going to the Persian court ;" " on going," 8cc . " He 
was totally dependent of the Papal crown ;" " on the Pa 
pal," Sec. "To call of a person," and" to wait of him," 
" on a person," 3cc. " He was eager of recommending it 
to his fellow citizens," " in recommending," Sec. Of is 
sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy: 
as, " It is worthy observation," or, i4 of observation." 
Hut it would have been better omitted in the following 
sentences. 6| The emulation, who should serve their 
country best, no longer subsists among them, but of who 
should obtain the most lucrative command." "The rain 
hath been falling of a long time;" •' falling a long time." 
H It is situation tfniefly which decides of the fortune and 
characters of men:" "decides the fortune," or, " con- 
earning the fortune." " He found the greatest difficulty 
of writing ;" " in writing." " It might have given me a 
greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a thing implies 
actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it, implies onlyV 
capacity for enjoyment. " This had a much greater 
share of inciting him, than any regard after his father's 



Rule 17.] syntax. 17o 

commands;" "share in inciting," and " regard to his fa- 
ther's," &c. 

2d, Witfi respect to the prepositions to and for. — " You 
have bestowed your favours to the most deserving per- 
sons ;" "upon the most deserving," &c. " He accused 
the ministers for betraying the Dutch :" " of having be-~ 
tiyed;" "His abhorence to that superstitious figure;" 
" of that," 8cc. " A great change to the better ;" "for 
the better." "Your prejudice to my cause ;" "against." 
"The English were very different people then to what 
they are a* present ;" "from what," 6cc. " In compli- 
ance to the declaration ;" " with," &c. " It is more than 
they thought for ;" " thought of?' " There is no need 
for it ;" " of it." For is superfluous in the phrase, 
" More than he knows for" " No discouragement for 
the authors to proceed;" " to the authors," Sec. " It was 
perfectly in compliance to some persons ;" " with*' "The 
wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their 
greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon 
counsel;" " diminution of" and" derogation from" 

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and ufion. — • 
"Reconciling himself with the king.'* " Those things 
which have the greatest resemblance with each other, 
frequently diifer the most." "That such rejection should 
be consonant with our common nature." " Conformable 
with," Sec. " The history, of Peter is agreeable with, 
the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it should be, 
M to" instead of " with" " It is a use that perhaps I 
should not have thought on;" "thought of" "A greater 
quantity may be taken from the heap, without making any 
sensible alteration upon it ;" " in it." " Intrusted to per- 
sons on whom the parliament could confide ;" " in whom." 
"He was made much on at Argos ;" much of." "If 
policy can prevail upon force ;" " over force." " I do 
likewise dissent with the examiner ," "from" 

4th, With respect to the prepositions m, from, &c. — 
"They should be informed in some parts of his charac- 
ter;** "about" or, ^concerning" <* Upon such occasions 
as fell into their cognizance ;" " under" " That variety 
of factions into which we are still engaged;"" in which." 
"To restore myself into the favour ;" " to the favour." 
" Could he have profited from repeated experiences ;" 



1/6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.. [Rule 18. 

" 6y. 9i From seems to be superfluous after forbear: as, 
"He could not forbear from appointing the pope," &c. 
"A strict observance after times and fashons;" "of times." 
"The character which we may now value ourselves by 
drawing;" "ufion drawing." "Neither of them shall 
make me swerve out of the path;" "from the path." 
"Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a 
camel;" it ought to be, "which strain out a gnat, or take 
a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impro- 
priety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning 
of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of 
things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with 
the word every, which is in the singular number: as, 
" Which is found among every species of liberty;" "The 
opinion seems to gain ground among every body." 

5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of 
place, when they fohow verbs and participles of motion? 
as., " I went to London;" "I am going to town." But the pre- 
position at is generally used after the neuter verb to be: as ; 
"I have been at London;" "I was at the place appoint- 
ed;" "I shall be at Paris." We likewise say; "He 
touched, arrived at any place." The preposition in is 
set before countries cities, and large towns: as, "He 
lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But be- 
fore villages, single houses, and cities which are in dis- 
tant countries, at is used; as, "He lives at Hackney;" 
"He resides at Montpelicr." 

It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pro- 
noun one another, whether the preposition of be placed 
between the two parts of it, or before them both. We 
may say, "They were jealous of one another," or, "They 
were jealous one of another;" but perhaps the former 
is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions: as, ex- 
cepting, respecting, touching, concerning according. "They 
were all in fault exce/it or exce/iting him." 

RULE X VIII. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns: as, " Candour 



Rub 18.] SYNTAX, 177 

is to be approved and practised:" i% If thou sincerely 
desire, and earnestly pursue virtue, she xvill assuredly 
be found by thee, and prove a rich reward ;" " The 
master taught her and me to write ;" " He and she werfe 
school fellows."** 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may- 
further display its utility. " If he prefer a virtuous life, and 
is sincere in his professions, he will succeed;" "if he fire* 
fers" "To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhu<» 
man; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchris- 
tian ;" "and to want compassion." "The parliament ad- 
dressed the king, and has been prorogued the same day;" 
"and was prorogued." "His wealth and him bid adieu to 
each other;" "and he J 9 "He entreated us, my comrade 
and I, tolive harmoniously;" "comrade and me" "My 
sister and her were on good terms" "and she." " We often 
overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and are 
searching after those which are out of our reach:" it ought 
to be, " and search after." 

j&\. Conjunctions are, indeed frequently made to connect 
fiifferent moods and tenses of verbs: but in these instances 
the nominative must generally, if not always, be repeated^ 
which is not necessary, though it may be done, under the 
construction to which the rule refers. We may say, "He 
lives temperately, and he should live temperately;" "He 
may return, but he will not continue;" "She was proud^ 
though she is now humble;" but it is obvious, that in such 
cases, the nominative ought to be repeatedjfcnd that, by 
this means, the latter members of these sentences are ren- 
dered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those 
are which come under the rule. When, in the progress of 
a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative 
form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject 
or nominative is always resumed: as, "He is rich, but he 
is not respectable." "He is not rich, but he is respect- 
able." There appears to be, in general, equal reason for 
repeating the nominative, and resuming the subject, when, 
the course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the 

* This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bear* 
ing or relation* with regard to otjher parts of the sentence, 



178 English grammar. [Rule 1§. 

mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore 
be improved. " Anger glances into the breast of a wise 
man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools;" "but rests 
only;" or, "but it will rest only." "Virtue is praised by 
many, and would be desired also, if her worth were really 
known;" "and she would." "The world begins to recede, 
and will soon disappear;" "and it will." See the Octavo 
Grammar, Rule xviii. 

RULE XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the 
aubjunctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, that 
when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the 
subjunctive ought to be used : as, " If I were to write,, 
he would not regard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, 
Unless he repent" 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute na- 
ture require the indicative mood. u As virtue advances^ 
so vice recedes .*" u He is healthy, because he is tempe- 
rate." 

The conjunctions, if, though, unless, excefit, whether, Sec. 
generally require the subjunctive mood after them: as, "If 
thou be afflicted, repine not;" "Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust in him;" "He cannot be clean, unless he wash 
himself;" "No power, excefit it were given from above;" 
^ Whether it^ivere I or they, so we preach." But even 
these conjunctions, when the sentence does not imply 
doubt, admit of the indicative ; as, " Though he is poor, he 
is contented/'— See subjunctive mood, ft. 68, and fiages 183 ? 
184. 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to 
illustrate the distinction between the subjunctive and the 
indicative moods. " Though he were divinely inspired, and 
spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme autho- 
rity; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and 
could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he ut- 
tered, by miracles; yet, in compliance with the way in 
which human nature and reasonable creatures are usually- 
wrought upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour was di- 
vinely inspiredj and endued with supernatural powers^ are 



Rule 19.] syntax. 179 

positions that are here taken for granted, as not admitting 
the least doubt; they would therefore have been better 
expressed in the indicative mood: "Though he was di- 
vinely inspired ; though he was endued with supernatural 
powers." The subjunctive is used in the like improper 
manner in the following example :'" Though he were a son» 
yet learned he obedience, by the things which he suffered/" 
But, in a similar passage, the indicative, with great propri- 
ety, is employed to the same purpose; "Though he was 
rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 
tffl. Lest, and that, annexed to a command preceding, ne- 
cessarily require the subjunctive mood: as, "Love not 
sleep, lest thou come to poverty;" "Reprove not a scorn- 
er, lest he hate thee;" "Take heed that thou speak not to 
Jacob."/-^. 

If with but following it, when futurity is denoted, re- 
quires the subjunctive mood: as, " If he do but touch the 
hills, they shall smoke ;" " If he be but discreet, he will 
succeed. ^j4J3ut the indicative ought to be used, on this oc- 
casion, when future time is not signified: as, "If in this 
expression, he does but jest, no offence should be taken;" "If 
she is but sincere, I am happy." The same distinction ap- 
plies to the following forms of expression: "If he do submit. 
it will be from necessity;" "Though he does submit, he is 
not convinced;" "If thou do not reward this service, he will 
be discouraged;" "If thou dost heartily forgive him, endeav- 
our to forget the offence." 

2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, express- 
d or understood, seems to be improperly accompanied with 
the subjunctive mood. "So much she dreaded his tyranny. 
that the fate of her friend she dare not lament." He reason- 
ed so artfully that his friends would listen, and think [that] 
he were not wrong.'-^/ ** 

/f 3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative and 
the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same 
circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety : as in these 
instances. "If there be but one body of legislators, it is no 
better than a tyranny; if there are only two, there will want 
a casting voice." "If sl man have a hundred sheep, and 
one of them fe gone astray," 8ce.^£-— 

//4. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any 
language, have arisen from the ellipsis of some words. 



ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [Rule 19* 

which were originally inserted in the sentence, and made 
it regular; and it is probable, that this has generally been 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, 
now in use; which will appear from the following exam- 
ples: "We shall overtake him though he run; 99 that is, 
"though he should run; 5 ' "Unless he act prudently, he 
will not accomplish his purpose; 5 ' that is, "unless he shall 
act prudently. 'JJL& If he succeed and obtain his end, he will 
not be the happier for it;" that is, "If he should succeed 
and should obtain his end/ 5 These remarks and examples 
are designed to show the original of many of our present, 
conjunctive forms of expression; and to enable the student 
to examine the propriety of using them, by tracing the 
words in question to their proper origin and ancient con- 
nexions. But it is necessary to be more particular' on this 
subject, and therefore we shall add a few observations re* j 
specting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the pre- 
sent tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future significa- 
tion. This is effected by varying the terminations of the 
second and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will 
be evident from the following examples: "If thou prosper, 
thou shouldst be thankful; 5 ' "Unless he study more close- 
ly, he will never be learned." Some writers however 
would express these sentiments without those variations; 
"If thou firosjierest" Sec. "Unless he studies 99 6cc: and 
as there is great diversity of practice in this point, it is 
proper to offer the learners a few remarks, to assist them 
in distinguishing the right application of these different 
forms of expression. It maybe considered as a rule, that 
the changes of termination are necessary, when these two 
circumstances concur: 1st, When the subject is of a du- 
bious and contingent nature; and 2cTJ When the verb has 
a reference to future time. In the following sentences^ 
both these circumstances will be found to unite: "If thou 
injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself : 99 " He has a hard 
heart; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffer ;" 
" He will maintain his principles* though he lose his es- 
tate; 5 ' "Whether he succeed or not, his intention is laud- 
able: 55 "If he be not prosperous, he will not repine ; ,? 
"If a man smite his seiwant, and he die, 99 &c. Exod. xxi. 
20. In all these * examples, the things signified by the 



Rule 19.] syntax. 181 

verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the 
instances which follow, future time is not referred to ; and 
therefore a different construction takes place ; a If thou 
livest virtuously, thou art happy ;" " Unless he means 
what he says, he is doubly faithless;" u If he allows the 
excellence of virtue,, he does not regard her precepts ;" 
u Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceiv- 
ed us ;" *' Whether virtue is better than rank or wealth, 
admits not of any dispute ;" « If thou believest with all thy 
heart, thou mayest," &c. Acts viii. 37\ — There are many 
sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which neither 
contingency nor futurity is denoted : as, u Though he ex- 
cels her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in virtue." " I 
have no doubt of his principles: but if he believes the truths 
of religion, he does not act according to them." 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity 
are necessary, as tests of the propriety of altering the ter- 
minations, will be evident, by inspecting the following ex- 
amples; which show that there are instances in whicb nei-' 
ther of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the 
three examples following, contingency is denoted, but not 
futurity. " If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be 
trusted." " If he is now disposed to it, I v/ill perform the 
operation." u He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me." 
In the following sentences, futurity is signified, but not 
contingency. As soon as the sun sets, it will be cooler." 
■"As the autumn advances, fekese birds will gradually emi- 
grate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that 
the rules above-mentioned may be extended to assert, that 
in cases wherein contingency and futurity do not concur, it 
is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of pre** 
sent time, nor to vary its form or termination. The verb 
would then be in the indicative mood, whatever conjunc- 
tions might attend it.~ If these rules, which seem to form 
the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indi- 
cative moods in this tense, were adopted and established in 
practice, we should have, on this point, a principle of de- 
cision simple and precise, and readil^ applicable to every 
case that might occur.— It will, doubtle§s, sometimes hap- 
pen, that on this occasion, as well as on . many other oc- 
casions, a strict adherence to grammatical rules, would 

Q 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 19* 



render the language stiff and formal ; but when cases of 
this sort occur, it is better to give the expression a differ- 
ent turn, than to violate grammar for the sake of ease, or 
even of elegance. See Rule 14. Note 2. 
//$. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses 
^of the subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few 
observations. Some writers express themselves in the per- 
fect tense as follows : " If thou have determined, we must 
submit :" " Unless he have consented, the writing will be 
void :" but we believe that few authors of critical sagacity 
write in this manner. The proper form seems to be, " If 
thou hast determined ; unless he has consented JP^cc. con- 
formably to what we generally meet with in the Bible : 
" I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me." 
Isaiah xiv. 4, 5. " What is the hope of the hypocrite, 
though he hath gained," &c. Job xxvii. 8. See also Acts 
xxviii. 4. 
/^ 6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes 
^meet with such expressions as these ; u If thou had ap- 
plied thyself diligently, thou wouldst have reaped the ad- 
vantage ;" 4< Unless thou shall speak the whole truth, we 
cannot determine;" H If thou will undertake the business, 
there is little doubt of success." This mode of express- 
ing the auxiliaries does not appear to be warranted by the 
general practice of correct writers. They should be 
hadst) shalt, and wilt : and we find them used in this form, 
in the sacred Scriptures. V" 1 

" If thou hadst known," &c. Luke xix. 47. « If thou 
hadst been here," &c. John xi. 21. u If thou wilt, thou 
canst make me clean," Matt. viii. 2. See also, 2 Sam. ii. 
27. Matt. xvii. 4. 
// 7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense 
'in the subjunctive mood, is also very frequently varied in 
its termination : as, " If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst 
obey him ;" " Though thou did conform, thou hast gain- 
ed nothing by k." This variation, however appears to 
5e improper. Our present version of the Scriptures, 
which we again refer to, as a good grammatical authority 
in points of this natnre, decides against it. " If thou 
knev>est the gift,*p8*c. John iv. 10. " If thou didst receive 
it- why dost thoyrglory ?" &c. I Cor. iv. 7. See also Dan. 
v. 22. But it fa proper to remark, that the form of the 



Rule 19.] syntax. 183 

verb to be, when used subjunctively in the imperfect 
tensfc, is indeed very considerably and properly varied 
from that which it has in the imperfect of the indicative 
mood : as the learner will perceive by turning to the conju- 
gation of that verb. 
// 8* It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the 
*C uxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the 
subjunctive, do not change the termination of the second 
person singular. We properly say, " If thou mayest or 
Canst go ;" " Though thou mightst live ;" " Unless thou 
couldst read :" 4i If thou wouldst learn;" and not " If thou 
may or can go," & c?/ lj is sufficient, on this point, to 
adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth ; 6i If thou 
shouldst go," Johnson. " If thou may si, mights^ or couldst 
love";" Lowth, Some authors think, that when that ex- 
presses the motive or end, the termination of these aux- 
iliaries should be varied: as, «* I advise thee, that thou 
-may beware;" 6 * He checked thee, that thou should not 
presume:" but there does not appear to beany ground 
for this exception. If the expression of " condition, doubt, 
contingency," &c. does not warrant a change in the form 
of these auxiliaries, why should they have it, when a mo- 
tive or end is expressed ? The translators of the Scrip, 
tures do not appear to have made the distinction contended 
for. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayest be their 
king," Neh, vi. 6. " There is forgiveness with thee* that 
thou* may st be feared." Psalm cxxx. 4. 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it 
appears, that with respect to what is termed the present 
tense of any verb, when the circumstances of contingency 
and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations 
of the second and third persons singular ; that without 
the concurrence of those circumstances, the terminations 
should not be altered ; and that the verb and the auxilia- 
ries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the 
first future, undergo no alterations whatever : except the 
imperfect of the verb to be, which, in cases denoting con- 
tingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular num- 
ber. See page 82. The Note. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, 
it will be natural for the student to inquire, what is the 
extent of the subjunctive mood? Some grammarians 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 19« 

think it extends only to what is called the present tense 
of verbs generally, under the circumstances of contin- 
gency and futurity: and to the imperfect tense of the 
verb to be, when it denotes contingency, &c. : because in 
these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of varia- 
tion ; and they suppose that it is variation merely which 
constitutes the distinction of moods. It is the opinion of* * 
other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, 
besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the 
three past, and the two future tenses, are irr the subjunc- 
tive mood, when they denote contingency or uncertainty, 
though they have not any change of termination ; and 
that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, through 
all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, what- 
ever conjunction may attend it. They think, that the 
definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have no 
reference to change of termination, but that they refer 
merely to the manner of the being, action or passion, 
signified by the verb ; and that the subjunctive mood may 
as properly exist without a variation of the verb, as the 
infinitive mood, which has no terminations different from 
those of the indicative. The decision of this point may 
not, by some grammarians, be thought of much conse- 
quence. But the rules which ascertain the propriety of 
varying, or not varying, the terminations of the verb ? 
will certainly be deemed important. These rules may be 
well observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respect- 
ing the nature and limits of the subjunctive mood. For 
futher remarks on the subject, see pages 72, 76 — 78, 
94—96. 100—102* 

* We have stated, for the student's information, the different opin- 
ions of grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive Mood : 
First, that which supposes there is no such mood in our language j 
Secondly, that which extends it no farther than the variations of the 
verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we have adopted, and explained, 
at large ; and which, in general, corresponds with the views of the 
most approved writers on English Grammar. We may add a Fourth 
opinion ; which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This 
opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, 
namely, that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two 
forms : 1st, that which simply denotes contingency : as, " If he de- 
sires it, I will perform the operation ;" that is, "If he now desires 
it ;" 2dly, that which denotes both contingency and futurity ; as* 



Rule 19.] syntax. 185 

/J^9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions 
ybelonging to them, either expressed or understood : as, 
1st, Though, — yet, nevertheless : as, " Though he was 
rich, yet for our sakes he became poor." " Though pow- 
erful, he was meek. 

2d, Whether— -or : as, " Whether he will go or not, I 
cannot tell/* 

3d, Either — or: as, u I will either send it, or bring it 
myself." 

4th, Neither*— nor : as, " Neither he nor I am able to com- 
pass it." 

5th, As — as : expressing a comparison of equality : as, 
*? She is as amiable as her sister ; and as much respected." 

6th, As — so : expressing a comparison of equality : as, 
4i As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7th, As> — so,* expressing a comparison of quality: as, 
" As the one dieth, so dieth the other." " As he reads, 
they read." 

8th, So*— as : with a verb expressing a comparison of 
quality: as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee 
in the sanctuary." 

9th, So — as : with a negative and an adjective express- 
ing a comparison of quality : as, " Pompey was not so 
great a general as Caesar, nor so great a man." 

10th, So — -that: expressing a consequence: as, *< He 
was so fatigued, that he could scarcely move."->*L> 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, With 
nearly equal propriety. " The king, whose character was 
not sufficiently vigorous? nor decisive, assented to the mea- 
sure." In this sentence, or would perhaps have been bet- 
ter : but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in 
the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives more 
emphasis to the expression. 

// 10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly 
*/and in pairs. The following are examples of this imprdpri- 

" If Jj t e desire it, I will perform the operation ;" that is, " If he 
shoulct hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive 
mood, claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods 
consistent and regular ; of being more conformable than any other, 
to the definition of the subjunctive j and of not referring to the in- 
dicative mood forms of expression, which ill accord with its simpli* 
#ity and nature, Perhaps this theory wiH bear a strict examination 

Q2 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Rule 19. 

ety . " The relations are so uncertain, as that they require 
a great deal of examination :" it should be, " that they re- 
quire, 5 * &ayS& There was no man so sanguine, who did not 
apprehend 'some ill consequences:" it ought to be, c; so san- 
guine as not to apprehend," 8cc; or, "no man, how san- 
guine soever, who did not," Ecc. u To trust in him is no 
more but to acknowledge his power." 4< This is no other 
but the gate of paradise." In both these instances, but 
should be than. <; We should sufficienly weigh the objects 
of our hope ; whether they are such as we may reasonably 
expect from them what they propose," 8cc. It ought to be, 
" that we may reasonably," &c, ?' The duke had not be- 
haved with that loyalty as he ought to have done ;" " with 
which he ought." Ci In the order as they lie in his preface :" 
it should be, " in order as they lie ;" or, " in the order in 
"which they lie." " Such sharp replies that cost him his 
life ;" Ci as cost him," &c. " If he were truly that scare- 
crow, as he is now commonly painted ;" " such a scare- 
crow," 8c c. " I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to 
oblige the painters," dec; " do such justice astooblige," &c. 

There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning 
with the conjunctive form of a verb. < 4 Were there no dif- 
ference, there would be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a 
sentence, is sometimes made use of : as, *had he done this, 
he had escaped ;" u Had the limitations on the prerogative 
been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had 
made him regard as sacred, the boundaries of the constitu- 
tion." The sentence in the common form would have read 
thus : " If the limitations on the prerogative had been, Sec. 
his integrity would have made him regard," 6cc, 
// The particle as, when it is connected with the psonoun 
'/such) has the force of a relative pronoun : as, " Let such as . 
presume to advise others,- look well to their own conduct;" 
which is equivalent to, u Let them who presume," Sccjjteut 
when used by itself, this particle is to be considers as a 
conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. See the Key. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar 
style, equivalent to notwithstanding* The words for all 
that> seem to be too low. "The word was in the mouth 



Rule 20.] syntax. 187 

of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a 
secret/' 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would 
do much better in the following sentence. <; It cannot be 
otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from 
that of every other language." 

The word excefit is far preferable to other than. " It 
admitted of no effectual cure other than amputation." 
Excefit is also to be preferred to all but. " They were 
happy all but the stranger." 

In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is im- 
properly omitted ; *' Which nobody presumes, or is so san- 
guine A to hope." "I must, however, be so just A to own." 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and un- 
derstood ; as, * I beg you would come to me ;" " See thou 
do it not ;" instead of " that you would," " that thou do." 
But in the following and many similar phrases, this con- 
junction were much better inserted : " Yet it is reason 
the memory of their virtues remain to posterity." It should 
be, " yet it is just that the memory," Sec. 

RULE XX. 

When the qualities of different things are compared, 
the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the con- 
junction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is go- 
verned by the verb or the preposition, expressed or un- 
derstood : as, " Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, u than 
I am." u They loved him more than me ;" i. e. u more 
than they loved me." " The sentiment is well ex- 
pressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than 
him ; 5 ' that is, " than by him."*' 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the 
preceding as well as in some other forms, may be discover- 
ed, by supplying the words that are not expressed ; which 
will be evident from the following instances of erroneous 
construction. " He can read better than me." " He is 
as good as her." " Whether I be present or no." " Who 
did this ? Me." By supplying the words understood in 

* See the Tenth, or any subsequent, edition of the Key ; Rule xx. 
The Note. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 2 L 

each of these phrases, their impropriety and governing- 
rule will appear: as, "Better than I can read ;" " As good 
as she is ;" " Present or not present ;" " I did it." 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been 
committed: a number of which is subjoined, as a further 
caution and direction to the learner. " Thou art a much 
greater loser than me by his death." " She suffers 
hourly more than me." " We contributed a third more 
than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion 
more than us." u King Charles, and more than him, the 
duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new 
schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was, to pre- 
pare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than 
him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." " It 
was not the work of so eminent an author, as him to whom 
it was first imputed." " A stone is keavy, and the 
sand weighty ; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them 
both," " If the king give us leave, we may perform the 
office as well as them that do." In these passages it 
ought to be, ? 7, we, he, they, respectively." 

When the relative who immediately follows than, it 
seems to form an exception to the 20th rule ; for in that 
connexion, the relative must be in the objective case ; 
as, "Alfred, than whom, & greater king never reigned," 
Sec. " Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher 
sat," &c. It is remarkable that in such instances, if the 
personal pronoun were used, it would be in the nomina- 
tive case ; as, "A greater king never reigned than he? 
that is, " than he was" " Beelzebub, than he? &c. ; that 
is, " than he sat" The phrase than whom, is, however, 
avoided by the best modern writers. 

RULE XXI. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
ideas in few words, an ellipsis or omission of some 
words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, " He 
was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a 
good man ;?' we make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He 
was a learned s wise, and good man," 

When the omission of words would obscure the sen- 
tence weaken its force, or be attended with m im* 



Rule 21.] syntax. 189 

propriety, they must be expressed. In the sentence, 
44 We are^apt to love who love us," the word them 
should be supplied. tc A beautiful field and trees," is 
'not proper language. It should be, " Beautiful fields 
and trees ;" cr, u A beautiful field and fine trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less ellip- 
tical; some examples of which may be seen under the 
different parts of speech. 

ff 1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used ; " A man 
woman and child :" that is, " a man, a woman, and a 
child. 'i^fc 4 A house and garden ;" that is, " a house and 
a garden." " The sun and moon ;" that is, " the sun 
and the moon." " The day and hour ;" tha.t is, u the day 
and the hour." In all these instances, the article being 
once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary 
There is, however, an exception to this observation, 
when some peculiar emphasis requires repetition ; as 
in the following sentence. " Not only the year, but the 
day and the hour." In this case, the ellipsis of the last 
article would be improper. When a different form of the 
article is requisite, the article is also properly repeated : 
as, " a house and an orchard ;" instead of, " a house and. 
orchard." 

// 2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following man- 
ner. "The laws of God and man ;" that is, " the laws of 
God and the laws of man .^ In some very emphatical ex- 
pressions, the ellipsis should not be used : as, ' 4 Christ the 
power of God, and the wisdom of God;" which is more 
emphatical than, " Christ the power and wisdom of God." 

fr 3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following 
manner. " A delightful garden and orchard ;" that is, 
" a delightful garden and a delightful orchard ;'S<£ A 
little man and woman ;" that is, " A little man and a lit- 
tle woman." In such elliptical expressions as these, the 
adjective ought to have exactly the same signification, 
and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter sub- 
stantive as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not 
be admitted. 

A< Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of 
different numbers; as, « A magnificent house and gar- 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMER. [Rule 21 « 

dens." In this ease it is better to use auother adjective : 
as, " A magnificent house and fine gardens." ^"» 
// 4. The following is the ellipsis of the. fir on oun. " I love 
Vand fear him;" that is, " I love him, and I fear him.'jjC 
" My house and lands;" that is, u my house and my 
lands." In these instances the ellipsis may take place 
■with propriety ; but if we would be more express and em- 
phatical, it must not be used : as, " His friends and his 
foes;" " My sons and my daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative 
pronoun is usually omitted : as, " This is the man they 
love ;" instead of, " This is the man whom they love." 
a These are the goods they bought ;" for, " These are 
the goods which they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the re- 
lative pronoun expressed : as it is more proper to say, 
" The posture in which I lay," than, " In the posture I 
lay:" " The horse on which I rode, fell down;" than 
41 The horse I rode, fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a 
sentence together, and to prevent obscurity and confu- 
sion, should answer to ea*ch other with great exactness, 
# We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and 
ought to be supplied ; as, " We speak that which we do 
know, and testify that which we have seen." 

5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following h> 
stances. " The man was old and crafty ;" that is, " the 
man was old, and the man was crafty*-^ She was young, 
and beautiful, and good;" that is, u one was young, she 
was beautiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and 
wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we , 
would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art 
Qugirt to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one pro- 
perty above the rest, that property must be placed last, 
and the ellipsis supplied : as, " She is young and beauti- 
ful, and she is good." 

« I went to see and hear him;" that is, « I went to see 
and I went to hear him." In this instance there is not only 
an ellipsis of the governing verb I went, but likewise of the 
sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it, 



a 



Rule 21.] SYNTAX. 191 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest 
of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently- 
used alone, to spare the repetition of the verb: as, " He 
regards his word, but thou dost not:" i. e. " dost not re- 
gard it." " We succeeded, but they did not ;" " did not 
succeed." " I have learned my task, but thou hast not ;" 
" hast not learned." " They must, and they shall be pun- 
ished ;" that is, " they must be punished." See the Key. 
//6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following 
manner. "He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is," He 
spoke wisely, and he acted wisely i^i^Thrice I went and 
offered my service ;" that is, " Thrice I went, and thrice 
J offered my service." 

//*? '. The ellipsis of the fireflosition, as well as of the verb, 
is seen in the following instances : " He went into the ab- 
beys, halls, and public buildings ;" that is, " he went into 
the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the 
public buildings^^&He also went through all the streets 
and lanes of the city ;" that is, " Through all the streets, 
and through all the lanes," 8cc. u He spoke to eveiy man 
and woman there," that is, " to every man and to every 
woman." " This day, next month, last year;" that is, "on 
this day, in the next month, in the last year ;" " The Lord 
do that which seemeth him good ;" that is, "which seem- 
eth to him." 

// S. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : * ; They 
iconfess the power, wkdom, goodness, and love, of their 
Creator ;" i. e. " the power, and wisdom, and goodness, 
and love of," &c.SjCThough I love hirn, I do not flatter 
him, " that is, "Though I love him, yet I do not flatter 
him," 

/J 9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; it, 
nowever, is sometimes used: as, "Oh ! pity and shame 1" 
that is, "Oh pity i Oh shame i"^^ 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the 
English language, numerous examples of it might be giv- 
e,n ; but only a few more can be admitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable 
ope : "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade 
were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; 
and if another, from another ;" that is, " He will often 
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMER. [Rule. 22* 

we should gain from one nation, and if another part of 
our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from 
another nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of 
the ellipsis :" " Wo is me ;" i. e. "wo is to me." " To 
let blood ;" i. e. " to let out blood." " To let down ;" 
i. e. "to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile ;" 
i. e. " to walk through the space of a mile." "To sleep 
all night ;" i. e. " To sleep through all the night." " To 
go a fishing;" "To go a hunting:'' i. e. " to go on a 
fishing voyage or business ;" " to go on a hunting party." 
" I dined at two o'clock ;" i. e. "at two of the clock." 
« By sea, by land, on shore:" i. e. "By the sea, by the 
land, on the shore." 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the 
impropriety of ellipsis in some particular 'cases. " The 
land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those in- 
trusted with the command;" it should be, u those fteraons 
intrusted ;" or, "those who were intrusted." "If he had 
read further, he would have found several of his objections 
might have been spared:" that is, "he would have found 
that several of his objections," &c. " There is nothing 
men are more deficient in, than knowing their own cha- 
racters." It ought to be, u nothing in which men ;" and, 
" than in knowing." " I scarcely know any part of natu* 
ral philosophy would yield more variety and use ;" it 
should be, " which would yield," 6cc. " In the temper of 
mind he was then;" i. e. u in which he then was." " The 
little satisfaction and consistency, to.be found in most of 
the systems of divinity I have met with, made me betake 
myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures :" it ought to 
be, " which are to be found," and " which I have met 
with." " He desired they might go to the altar together, 
and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were 
due ;" i. e. " to him to whom," Sec. 

RULE XXII. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
<pther : a regular and dependent construction, through- 
out, should be carefully preserved. The following sen- 
tence is therefore inaccurate % " He was more beloved ? 



Rule 22.] syntax. 193 

but not so much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, 
u He was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much 
admired." 

The first example under this rule, presents a most irre- 
gular construction, namely, "He was more beloved as Cin- 
thio." The words more and so much^ are very improperly 
stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such 
sentences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; 
because it cannot lead to any discordant or improper con- 
struction, and the supply would often be harsh or inele- 
gant. See p. 185. 

As the 22d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, 
it may, at the first view, appear to be too general to be 
useful. But by ranging under it a number of sentences 
peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive, that it is calcu- 
lated to ascertain the true grammatical construction of 
many modes of expression, which none of the particular 
rules can sufficiently explain. 

" This dedication may serve for almost any book, that 
has, is, or shall be published. " It ought to be, "that has 
been, or shall be published." " He was guided by interests 
always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the com- 
munity;" " different from;* 9 or, "always different from 
those of the community, and sometimes contrary to them." 
a Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even 
older than tradition ?" The words, " as old," and " older," 
cannot have a common regimen ; it should be u as old as 
tradition, or even older." " It requires few talents to 
which most men are not born, or at least may not ac- 
quire;" "or which, at least they may not acquire * 
" The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks 
the teeth of the common law." In this construction, the 
first verb is said, " to mitigate the teeth of the common 
law," which is an evident solecism. u Mitigates the com- 
mon law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have been 
grammatical. 

" Tkey presently grow into good humour, and good lan- 
guage towards the crown;" * grow into good language," 
is very improper. " There is never wanting a set of evil 
instruments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, 
or filthy lucre : are always ready," 8cc. We say properly, 

R 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule 22* 

H A man acts out of mad zeal/' or, " out of private ha- 
tred;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, 
" he acts out of filthy lucre." " To double her kindness 
and caresses of me ;" the word " kindness" requires to be 
followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with 
the preposition of " Never was man so teased, or suf- 
fered half the uneasiness, as 1 have done this evening :" 
the first and third clauses, viz. * Never was man so teas- 
ed, as I have done this evening," cannot be joined with- 
out an impropriety ; and to connect the second and third, 
the word that must be substituted for as ; "Or suffered 
half the uneasiners that I have done ;" or else, * half so 
much uneasiness as I have suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with 
adverbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one 
another : " How much soever the reformation of this degen- 
erate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet 
have a more comfortable prospect of future times." The 
sentence would be more correct in the following form: 
<c Though the reformation of this .degenerate age is nearly 
to be despaired of," &c. 

"Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life 
with the blood-thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and 
their right-hand is full of gifts." As the passage, introduc- 
ed by the copulative conjunction and, was not intended as 
a continuation of the principal and independent part of 
the sentence, but of the dependent part, the relative whose 
should have been used instead of the possessive their j viz. 
"and whose right-hand is full of gifts." 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered 
into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared 
for them that love him." There seems to be an improprie- 
ty in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a 
double capacity, performing at the same time the offices 
feoth of the nominative and objective cases. «* Neither 
hath it entered into the heart of man, to conceive the 
things," Sec. would have been regular. 

<« We have the power of retaining, altering, and com- 
pounding, those images which we have once received, into 
all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very proper 
to say, " altering and compounding those images which we 
have once received, into all the varieties of picture and 



SYNTAX. 195 

vision ;" but we can with no propriety say, " retaining them 
into all the varieties ;" and yet, according to the manner 
in which the words are ranged, this construction is un- 
avoidable: for "retaining, altering, and compounding," 
are participles, each of which equally refers to, and gov- 
erns the subsequent noun, those images ; and that noun 
again is necessarily connected with the following preposi- 
tion, into. The construction might easily have been recti- 
fied, by disjoining the participle retaining from the other 
two participles, in this way: " We have the power of re- 
taining those images which we have once received, and 
of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of 
picture and vision;" or, perhaps, better thus: "We have 
the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those 
images which we have once received, and of forming 
them into all the varieties of picture and vision." 

INTERJECTION. 

For the syntax of the Interjection, see Rule v. Note 
1 L page 1 38, and Note 9, of Rule xxi. 



DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 

As we have finished the explanation of the different 
parts of speech, and the rules for forming them into sen- 
tences, it is now proper to give some examples of the 
manner in which the learners should be exercised, in or- 
der to prove their knowledge, and to render it familiar 
to them. This is called parsing. The nature of the 
subject, as well as the adaptation of it to learners, re- 
quires that it should be divided into two parts: viz. pars- 
ing, as it respects etymology alone; and parsing, as it 
respects both etymology and syntax.* 

Section 1. Specimens of etymological fiarsing. 
c * Virtue ennobles us." 
Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
the third person, the singular number, and in the nomina- 
tive case. {Decline the noun!) Ennobles is a regular verb 

• See the " General Directions for using the English Exercises," 
prefixed to the Eighth and every subsequent edition of that book. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third per- 
son singular. {Repeat the fire sent tense, the imperfect tense, 
and the fierfect participle. \) Us is a personal pronoun, of 
the first person plural, and in the objective case. {De- 
cline it.) 

" Goodness will be rewarded." 

Good?iess is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
der, the third person, the singular number, and in the 
nominative case. {Decline it.) Will be rewarded is a re- 
gular verb, in the passive voice, the indicative mood, the 
first future tense, and the third person singular. {Repeat 
the present tense, the imperfect tense, and the perfect parti- 
ciple.) 

ct Strive to improve." 

Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative 

mood, and of the second person singular. {Repeat the 

present tense, &c.) To improve is a regular verb neuter, 

and in the infinitive mood ; ^ {Repeat the present tense, &c.) 

"Time flies, O ! how swiftly." 
Time is a common substantive, of the neuter gender? 
the third person, the singular number, and in the nomina- 
tive case. {Decline the noun.) Flies is an irregular verb 
neuter, the indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
person singular. {Repeat the present tense, tJfc.) ! is an 
interjection. How and swiftly are adverbs. 

a Gratitude is a delightful emotion." 

Gratitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
der, the third person, the singular number, and in the 
nominative case. {Decline it.) Is is an irregular verb 
neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
person singular. {Repeat the present tense, ifc.) A is the 
indefinite article. Delightful is an adjective in the posi- 
tive state. {Repeat the degrees of comparison.) Amotion 
is a common substantive of the neuter gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
{Decline it.) 

f The learner should occasionally repeat all the moods and tenses 
of the verb. 



SYNTAX. 197 

H They who forgive, act nobly." 

They is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the 
plural number, and in the nominative case. {Decline it.) 
Who is a relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (De : 
dine it.) Forgive is an irregular verb active, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Re- 
peat the fire sent tense, Isfc.) Act is a regular verb active, 
indicative mood, present tense, and the third person plu- 
ral. (Repeat, Zsfc.) Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Repeat 
the degrees of comparison.) 

"By living temperately, our health is promoted." 
By is a preposition. Living is the present participle of 
the regular neuter verb f to live." (Repeat the partici- 
ples.) Temperately is an adverb of quality. Our is an ad- 
jective pronoun of the possessive kind. (Decline it.) 
Health is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) 
Is promoted is a regular verb passive, indicative mood, 
present tense, and the third person singular. ( Repeat, ifc.) 

" We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 
We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural 
number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Should 
he \s an irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the 
imperfect tense, and the first person plural. (Repeat the 
present tense, Vc.) Kind is an adjective, in the positive 
state. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) To is a prepo- 
sition. Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, 
the plural number, and in the objective case. (Decline 
it.) Who is a relative pronoun, and in the nominative 
case. (Decline it.) Are is an irregular verb neuter, in- 
dicative mood, present tense, and the third person plural. 
(Repeat, &c.) Unkind is an adjective in the positive state. 
(Repeat the degrees of comparison,) To is a preposition. 
fJs is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the pldrS! 
number, and in the objective case. (Decline it.) 

Section 2. Specimen* of syntactical parsing, 
" Vice produces misery." 
Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender^ 
U\e third person, the singular number, and in the nomx« 

R2 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

native case. Produces is a regular verb active, indicative 
mood, present tense, the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative " vice 39 according to rule i. which 
says; (here refieat the rule!) Misery is a common substan- 
tive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular 
number, and the objective case, governed by the active 
Terb "produces/' acording to Rule xi. which says, &c. 

u Peace and joy are virtue's crown." 
Peace is a common substantive* (Refieat the gender f 
person, number, and case.) And is a copulative conjunc- 
tion. Joy is a common substantive. (Refieat the person , 
number, and case!) Are is an irregular verb neuter, indi- 
cative mood, present tense, and the third person plural, 
agreeing with the nominative case " peace and joy," ac- 
cording to rule ii. which says; (here refieat the rule.) 
Virtue's is a common substantive, of the third person, 
the singular number, and in the possessive case, govern- 
ed by the substantive "crown," agreeably to rule k, 
which says, Sec. Crown is a common substantive, of the 
aeuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and 
in the nominative case, agreeably to the fourth note of 
rule xi. 

u Wisdom or folly governs us," 
Wisdom is a common substantive. (Refieat the gender^ 
person, number^and case.) Or is a disjunctive conjunction, 
Folly is a common substantive. (Refieat the person, num- 
ber, and case.) Governs is a regular verb active, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and the third person singular, 
agreeing with its nominative case " wisdom" or " folly," 
according to rule iii. which says, &c. Us is a personal 
pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and in the 
objective case, governed by the active verb " governs," 
agreeably to rule xi. which says, &c. 

u Every heart knows its sorrows." 
Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive kind, 
agreeing with its substantive "heart," according to Note 
2 under rule viii. which says, &c. Heart is a common 
substantive. (Refieat the gender, fiers outnumber, and case.) 
Knows is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, pre- 
mut tease, third person singular, agreeing with its nomj 



SYNTAX. 1^9 

native case "heart," according to rule i. which says, &c, 
Its is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, 
and of the neuter gender, to agree with its substantive 
" heart,'* according to rule v. which says, &c. it is in 
the possessive case, governed by the noun " sorrows," 
according to rule x. which says, &c. Sorrows is a com- 
mon substantive, of the third person, the plural number, 
and the objective case governed by the active verb 
" knows," according to Rule xi. which says,&c. 

" The man is happy who lives wisely." 
The is the definite article. Man is a common substan- 
tive. (Repeat the person, number, and case.) Is is an ir- 
regular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and 
the third person singular, agreeing with the nominative 
case "man," according to rule i. which says, Sec. Happy 
is an adjective in the positive state. Who is a relative 
pronoun, which has for its antecedent, " man," with 
which it agrees in gender and number, according to rule 
v. which says, 8cc. Lives is a regular verb neuter, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative " who," according to rule vi. which 
says, Sec. Wisely .is an adverb of quality, placed after the 
verb, according to rule xv. 

" Who preserves us?" 
Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, 
and in the nominative case singular. The word to which 
it relates, (its subsequent,) is the noun or pronoun con- 
taining the answer to the question ; agreeably to a note 
under rule vi. Preserves is a regular verb active, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative " who," according to rule vi. which 
says, Sec. Us is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person , 
number, case, and rule.) 

" Whose house is that ? My brother's and mine* 
Who inhabit? We." 
Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, 
and relates to the following words, " Brother's" and 
* mine," agreeably to a note under rule vi. It is in the 
possessive case, governed by ** house," according to 
rule x. which says, 6ce, House is a common substantive 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(Repeat the gender ', person, number, and case.) Is is an ir- 
regular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and 
the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case 
" house," according to rule i. which says, 8cc. That is 
an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. My is 
an adjective pronoun of the possessive kind. Brother's is 
a common substantive, of the third person, the singular 
number, and in the possessive case, governed by a house'* 
understood, according to rule x. and a note under Rule v*. 
And is a copulative conjunction. Mine is a personal pro- 
noun, of the first person, the singular number, and in the 
possessive" case according to a note under rule x. and an- 
other under rule vi. Who is a relative pronoun of the 
interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the nomina- 
tive case, and relates to "we" following, according to a 
note under rule vi. Inhabit is a regular verb active. 
{Repeat the mood, tense, person, c5V.) It is a personal pro- 
noun, of the rhird person, the singular number, and in the 
objective case, governed by the active verb " inhabit," 
according to rule xi. which says, 8cc. We is a personal 
pronoun, of the first person, the plural number, and the 
nominative case to the verb a inhabit" understood. The 
words "inhabit it" are implied after c 'we," agreeably to a 
note under rule vi. 

" Remember to assist the distressed/' 

Remember is a regular verb active, imperative mood, 
the second person singular, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive case "thou" understood. To assist is a regular verb 
active, in the infinitive mood, governed by the preceding 
verb tC remember," according to rule xii. which says, Sec. 
The is the definite article, Distressed is an adjective put 
substantively. 

" We are not unemployed.'"' 

We is a personal pronoun. {Repeat the person, number ', 
and case!) Are is an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat the 
??iood y tense, person, i?c.) Not is an adverb of negation. 
Unemployed is an adjective in the positive state. The tw© 
negatives not and un, form aa affirmative, agreeably t% 
rule xvi, which says ? &c. 



SYNTAX. 2G1 

" This bounty has relieved you and us ; and has gratifi- 
ed the donor." 

This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind- 
jBoUTityis a common substantive. (Repeat the person, num.* 
ber, and case.) Has relieved is a regular verb active, in 
dicative mood, perfect tense, third person singular, agree- 
ing with its nominative "bounty," according to Rule i. 
which says, &c. You is a personal pronoun, of the second 
person plural, and in the objective case. (Repeat the go- 
vernment and rule.) And is a copulative conjunction. Us 
is a personal pronoun, in the objective case. You and us 
are put in the same case, according to rule xviii. which 
says, &c. And is a copulative conjunction. Has gratified 
is a regular verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, 
and third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
" bounty," understood. "Has relieved" and " Has gratifi- 
ed" are in the same mood and tense, according to rule 
xviii. which says, &c. fThc is the definite article. Donor 
is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular 
number, and the objective case governed by the active 
verb u has gratified," according to Rule xi. which says, 
Sec. See the Octavo Grammar, on Gender. 

€l He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case. 
Will be pardoned is a regular passive verb, indicative mood 
first future tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative " he," according to rule i. and com- 
posed of the auxiliaries " will be," and the perfect par- 
ticiple " pardoned." Not is a negative adverb. Unless 
is a disjunctive conjunction. He is a personal pronoun. 
(Repeat the person, number, gender ', and case.) Repent is a 
regular verb neuter, in the subjunctive mood, the present 
tense, the third person singular, and agrees with its no- 
minative case " he," according to Rule i. which says, 
&c. It is in the subjunctive mood, because it implies a 
future sense, and denotes uncertainty signified by the con- 
junction " unless," agreeably to Rule xix, and the notes. 

" Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 
Good works being neglected^ being independent of the 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rest of the sentence, is the case absolute, according to the 
fifth note of Rule I. Devotion is a common substantive, 
(Re/ieat the number, per son, and case.) Is is an irregular verb 
neuter. (Repeat the mood,tense,person,&.c.') False is an ad- 
jective in the positive state, and belongs to its substantive 
" devotion" understood, agreeably to Rule vin. which 
says, &c. 

" The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and vir- 
tuous prince." 

The is the definite article. Emperor is a common sub- 
stantive, of the masculine gender, the third person, the 
singular number, and in the nominative case. Marcus 
Aurelius is a proper name or substantive, and in the no- 
minative case, because it is put in apposition with the 
substantive " emperor," agreeably to the first note of 
Rule x. Was is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, 
imperfect tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative case " cmperdr." A is the indefinite 
article. Wise is an adjective, and belongs to its substan- 
tive " prince." And is a copulative conjunction. Virtu- 
^us is an adjective, and belongs, &c. Prince is a common 
substantive, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the 
fourth note of Rule xi. 

€i To err is human." 
To err , is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case 
to the verb " is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and the third person singular, 
agreeing with its nominative case ? to err," agreeably to 
Note 1, under Rule the first. Human is an adjective, 
and belongs to its substantive " nature" understood, ac- 
cording to Rule vm. which says, &c. 

u To countenance persons who are guilty of bad ac- 
tions, is scarcely one remove from actually commit- 
ting them." 
To countenance persons wko are guilty of bad actions, is 
part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the 
verb " is," Is is an irregular verb neuter, &c. agreeing 
with the aforementioned part of a sentence, as its nomina- 
tive case, agreeably to Note 1, under Rule the first. 
Scarcely is an adverb* One is a numeral adjective agree- 



SYNTAX, 203 

ing with its substantive " remove." Remove is a com- 
mon substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
the singular number, and in the nominative case, agreea- 
bly to the fourth note of Rule xi. From is a preposition. 
Committing is the present participle of the regular active 
verb " to commit/' Them is a personal pronoun/of the 
third person, the plural number, and in the objective case, 
governed by the participle <; committing," agreeably to 
Rule xiv. which says, &c. 

" Let me proceed." 

This sentence, according to the statement of gramma- 
rians in general, is in the Imperative mood, of the first per- 
son, and the singular number. The sentence may, how- 
ever, be analyzed in the following manner. Let is an 
irregular verb active, in the imperative mood, of the 
second person, the plural number, and agrees with its 
nominative case " you" understood : as, " do you let." 
Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the singular 
number, and in the objective case, governed by the active 
verb " let," agreeably to Rule xi. which says, &c. Pro- 
ceed is a regular verb neuter, in the infinitive mood, gov- 
erned by the preceding verb "let," according toRulexu, 
which says, 8cc. 

"Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. 
By living frugally and temperately, health is preserved." 

Living expensively and luxuriously^ is the nominative 
case to the verb "destroys," agreeably to Note 1, under 
Rule i. Living frugally and temperately ^ is a substantive 
phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition 
"by," according to note 2, under Rule xiv. 

The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefully studied 
by the learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit to enable 
him to comprehend the nature of this employment; and 
Sufficiently diversified, to qualify him, in other exercises, 
to point out and apply the remaining rules* both principal 
and subordinate. 



( 204 ) 
PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches 
the true pronunciation of words, comprising ac- 
cent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; and 
the latter, the laws of versification. 



chapter i. 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Section 1. Of Accent. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the 
voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it 
may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
from them : as, in the word presume, the stress of the 
voice must be on the letter w, and second syllable, sume y 
which take the accent. 

As words may be formed of a different number of sylla- 
bles, from one to eight or nine, it was necessary to have 
some peculiar mark to distinguish words from mere sylla- 
bles; otherwise speech would be only a continued success 
sion of syllables, without conveying ideas ; for, as words 
are the marks of ideas, any confusion in the marks, must 
cause the same in the ideas for which they stand. It was 
therefore necessary, that the mind should at once perceive 
what number of syllables belongs to each word, in utter- 
ance. This might be done by a perceptible pause at the 
end of each word in speaking, as we form a certain dis- 
tance between them in writing and printing. But this 
would make discourse extremely tedious ; and though it 
might render words distinct, would make the meaning of 



Accent.J prosody. 205 

sentences confused. Syllables might also be sufficiently 
distinguished by a certain elevation or depression of voice 
upon one syllable of each word, which was the practice 
of some nations. But the English tongue has, for this pur- 
pose, adopted a mark of the easiest and simplest kind, 
which is called accent, and which effectually answers the 
end. 

Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, 
has one of them distinguished from the rest in this man- 
ner ; and some writers assert, that every monosyllable of 
two or more letters, has one of its letters thus distinguished. 

Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal 
accent is that which necessarily distinguishes one syllable 
in a word from the rest. The secondary accent is that 
stress which we may occasionally place upon another syl- 
lable, besides that which has the principal accent; in order 
to pronounce every part of the word more distinctly, for- 
cibly, and harmoniously : thus, " Complaisant, caravan/ 5 
and " violin/ 5 have frequently an accent on the first as well 
as on the last syllable, though a somewhat less forcible 
one. The same may be observed of " Repartee, referee, 
privateer, domineer, 55 &c. But it must be observed, that 
though an accent is allowed on the first syllable of these 
words, it is by no means necessary ; they may all be pro- 
nounced with one accent, and that on the last syllable, 
without the least deviation from propriety. 

As emphasis evidently points out the most significant 
word in a sentence ; so, where other reasons do not for- 
bid, the accent always dwells with greatest force on that 
part of the word which, from its importance, the hearer has 
always the greatest occasion to observe: and this is neces- 
sarily the root or body of the word. But as harmony of 
termination frequently attracts the accent from the root to 
the branches of words, so the first and most natural law 
of accentuation seems to operate less in fixing the stress 
than any other. Our own Saxon terminations, indeed, 
with perfect uniformity, leave the principal part of the 
word in quiet possession of what seems its lawful proper- 
ty; but Latin and Greek terminations, of which our lan- 
guage is full, assume a right of preserving their original 
accent, and subject almost every word they bestow upon 
us to their own classical laws. 

S 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 1. 

Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great mea- 
sure by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent 
is generally on the root ; in words from the learned lan- 
guages, it is generally on the termination ; and if to these 
we add the different accent we lay on some words, to dis- 
tinguish them from others, we seem to have the three 
great principles of accentuation ; namely, the radical, the 
terminational, and the distinctive. The radical: as ? 
"Love, lovely, loveliness;" the terminational : as, <c Har- 
mony, harmonious ;*' the distinctive : as, " Convert, to 
convert." 



ACCENT ON DISSYLLABLES. 

Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them ac* 
cented, and but one. It is true, far the sake of emphasis, 
we sometimes lay an equal stress upon two successive syl- 
lables : as, " Di-rect, some-times;" but when these words 
are pronounced alone, they have never more than one 
accent. The word " i-men," is the only word which is 
pronounced with two accents when alone. 

Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the for- 
mer syllable is commonly accented: as, a Childish, king- 
dom, detest, acted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, fore- 
most, zealous, fiilness, meekly, artist." 

Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical 
word, have commonly the accent on the latter: as, "To 
beseem, to bestow, to return," 

Of dissyllables, which are at :#nce nouns and verbs, the 
verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun 
on the former syllable : as, " To cement, a cement ; to 
contract, a contract; "to presage, a presage." 

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom 
have their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it 
on the latter syllable: as, "Delight, perfume." Those 
nouns which, in the common order of language, must have 
preceded the verbs, often transmit their accent to the verbs 
they form, and inversely. Thus, the noun "water" must 
have preceded the verb "to water," as the verb "to cor- 
respond," must have preceded the noun" correspondent :" 
and " to purstie" claims priority to " pursuit." So that 
we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate fromnhe rule. 



Accent,] prosody. 207 

it is seldom by chance, and generally in those words only 
where a superior law of accent takes place. 

All dissyllables ending in y, our, ow, le, ish, ck, ter, age, 
en, et : as,* " Cranny, labour, willow, wallow ;" except 
'•allow, avow, endow, below, bestow;" "battle, banish, 
cambric, batter, courage, fasten, quiet ;" accent the for- 
mer syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns in er, as, " Canker, butter,'' have 
the accent on the former syllable. 

Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and e 
final, as, "Comprise, escape;" or having a dipthong 
in the last syllable, as, " Appease, reveal ;" or ending in 
two consonants; as, "Attend; "have the accents on the 
latter syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter syl- 
lable, have commonly their accent on the latter syllable; 
as, " Applause;" except some words in ain : as, "Villain, 
curtain, mountain." 

Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated 
in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first 
syllable: as, "Lion, riot, quiet, liar, ruin;" except 
" create." 

ACCENT^pN TRISYLLABLES. 

Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefix- 
ing a syljgble, retain the accent of the radical word : as, 
" Loveliness, tenderness^ contemner, . wa^^er, physical, 
bespatter, commenting, commending, assurance." 

Trisyllables ending in ous, at, ion : as, " arduous, capi- 
tal, mention," accent the first. 

Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first 
syllable: as, "Countenance, pontinence, armament, im-* 
minent, elegant, propagate ;" unless they are derived 
from words having the accent on the last : as, " Conni- 
vance, acquaintance;" and unless the middle syllable 
has a vowel before two consonants : as, u Promulgate." 

Trisyllables ending in y, as, "entity, specify, liberty 
victory, subsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 

Trisyllables ending in re or le, accent the first sylla- 
ble : as, "Legible, theatre;" except "Disciple," and 
some words which have- a preposition : as, " Example, 
indenture." 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 1. 

Trisyllables ending in tide, commonly accent the first 
syllable : as, " Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 

Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the mid- 
dle syllable; as, tf Spectator, creator," 8cc: except Ora- 
tor, senator, barrator, legator." 

Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diphthong, 
as, "Endeavour;" or a vowel before two consonants; as, 
^Domestic;" accent the middle syllable. 

Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable, 
are commonly French : as, u Acquiesce, repartee, maga- 
zine;" or they are words formed by prefixing one or two 
syllables to a long syllable : as, " Immature, overcharge." 

ACCENT ON POLYSYLLABLES. 

Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, 
generally follow the accent of the words from which they 
are derived ; as, " arrogating, continency, incontinently, 
commendable, communicableness." 

Words ending in at or have the accent generally on the 
penultimate, or last syllable but one , as, " Emendator, 
gladiator, equivocator, prevaricator." 

Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the 
first syllable : as, " amicable, despicable ;" unless the 
second syllable has a vowel before two consonats: as, 
4< Combustible, condemnable." 

Words ending in ion, ous, and ty> have their accent on 
the antepenultimate, or last syllable but two : as, " Sal- 
vation, victorious, activity.'* 

Words which end in ia, io, and cal, have the accent on 
he a ntepenult : as, « Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical." 

The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as com* 
plete or infallible : they are merely proposed as useful. 
Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions ; 
and, in English, as in other tongues, much must be learn- 
ed by example and authority. 

It may be further observed, that though the syllable on 
which the principal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, 
yet we may, and do, frequently make the secondary prin- 
cipal, and the principal secondary : thus, " Caravan, com- 
plaisant, violin, repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," 
may all have the greater stress on the firsts and the less 



Quantity.] prosody. 209 

on the last syllable, without any violent offence to the ear ; 
nay, it may be asserted, that the principal accent on the 
first syllable of these words, and non^ at ail on the last, 
though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating* or 
discordant ; but placing an accent on the second syllable 
of these words would entirely derange them, and produce 
great harshness and dissonance. The same observations 
may be applied to "demonstration, lamentation i provoca- 
tion, navigator, propagator, alligator,' 5 and every similar 
word in the language. 

Section 2. Of Quantity. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is oc- 
cupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long 
or SHORT. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on 
the vowel ; which occasions it to be slowly joined in 
pronunciation with the following letters : as, u Fall, 
bale, mood, house, feature. " 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the con- 
sonant ; which occasions the vowel to be quickly join- 
ed to the succeeding letter : as, M ant, bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable generally requires double the time 
of a short one in pronouncing it; thus, " Mate" and 
" Note' 5 should be pronounced as slowly again as 
"Mat" and "Not." 

Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, "ad- 
mire, boldness, sinner." But to this rule there are 
many exceptions: as, "41so, exile, gangrene, umpire, 
foretaste/' &c. 

When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is often 
more or less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or 
with more than one: as, u Sa4Jy, robber; persist, match- 
less." 

When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the 
syllable may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi- 
vowel: as, " Cur', can', fulfil' :" but when the accent falls 
©n a mute, the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same 
manner: as, " Bubble, captain, totter." 

The quantity of vowels has, in some measure, been 
S3 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 2. 

considered under the first part of grammar, which treats 
of the different sounds of the letters; and therefore we 
shall dismiss this, subject with a few general rules and 
observations. 

1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the 
terminations ia 9 io, and jotz, preceded by a single conso- 
nant, are pronounced long : as, " Regalia, folio, adhesion, 
explosion, confusion :" except the vowel i f which in that 
situation is short: as, "Militia, punctilio, decision, con- 
trition." The only exceptions to this rule seem to be 
" Discretion, battalion, gladiator, national, and rational." 

2d, All vowels that immediately precede the termin- 
tions ity and ety are pronounced long : as, " Deity, piety, 
spontaneity," But if one consonant precedes these ter- 
minations, every preceding accented vowel is short ; ex- 
cept w, and the a in "scarcity," and "rarity;" as, "Po- 
larity, severity, divinity, curiosity ; — impunity." Even u 
before two consonants contracts itself: as, " Curvity, ta- 
citurnity," Sec. 

3d, Vowels under the principal accent, before the 
terminations ic and ical, preceded by a single consonant, 
are pronounced short; thus, " Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, 
harmonic," have the vowel short; while "Tunic, runic, 
cubic," have the accented vowel long: and "Fanatical, 
poetical, levitical, canonical," have the vow el short; but 
64 Cubical, musical," Sec. have the u long. 

4th, The vowel in the antepenultimate syllable of words, 
with the following terminations, is always pronounced short, 

loquy ; as, obloquy. parous; as, oviparous. 

strophe ; as, apostrophe. cracy ; as, aristocracy. 

meter; as, barometer. gony ; as, cosmogony. 

gonal; as, diagonal. phony ; as, symphony., 

vorous; as, carnivorous. nomy ; as, astronomy. 

ferous ; as, somniferous. tomy ; as, anatomy. 

Jluous; as, superfluous. pathy ; as, antipathy. 

jiuent; as, mellifluent. 

As no utterence which is void of proportion, can be a- 
greeable to the ear ; and as quantity, or proportion of time 
in utterance, greatly depends on a due attention to the 
accent; it is absolutely necessary for every person who 
would attain a just and pleasing delivery, to be master of 
that point. See this section in the Octavo Grammar, 



Emphasis.] prosody. 211 

Section 3. Of Emflhasis. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of 
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress, and to show 
how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes 
the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particu- 
lar tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

On the right management of the emphasis depends the 
life of pronunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any 
words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and 
lifeless, but the meaning often left ambiguous. If the 
emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound 
the meaning wholly. To give a common instance: such 
a simple question as this, "Do you ride to town to-day?" 
is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations, 
according as the emphasis is differently placed on the 
words. If it be prononced thus: "T)o you ride to town 
to-day?" the answer may naturally be, "No, we send a 
servant in our stead." If thus: "Do you ride to town 
to-day?" answer, "No, we intend to walk." "Do you 
ride to town to-day?" "No, we ride into the country." 
"Do you ride to town to-day?" "No, but we shall to- 
morrow." In like manner, in solemn discourse, the whole 
force and beauty of an expression often depend on the 
emphatic word ; and we may present to the hearers quite 
different views of the same sentiment, by placing the em- 
phasis differently. In the following words of our Saviour, 
observe in what different lights the thought is placed, ac- 
cording as the words are pronounced. "Judas, betrayest 
thou the son of man with a kiss?" "Betrayest thou," 
makes the reproach turn on the infamy of treachery. 
" Betrayest thou" makes it rest upon Judas's connexion 
with his master. "Betrayest thou the son of man" rests 
it upon our Saviour's personal character and eminence, 
" Betrayest thou the son of man with a kiss?" turns it up- 
on his prostituting -the signal of peace and friendship to 
the purpose of destruction. 

The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a ques- 
tion: as, " Who said so?" " When will' he come?" " What 
shall I do?" " Whither shall I go?" " Why dost thou weep ?" 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 3. 

And when two words are set in contrast, or in opposition 
to one another, thdy are both emphatic; as, "He is the 
tyrant, not the father, of his people;" "His subjects fear 
him, but they do not love him," 

Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that al- 
most every word is emphatical: as, " Ye hills and dales, 
ye rivers, woods and plains:" or, as that pathetic expostu- 
lation in the prophecy of Ezekiel, " Why will ye die !" 
In the latter short sentence, every word is emphatical ; 
and on which ever word we lay the emphasis, whether 
on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a dif- 
ferent sense, and opens a new subject of moving expos- 
tulation. 

As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and 
makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest ; so 
emphasis ennobles the word to which it belongs, and pre- 
sents it in a stronger light to the understanding. Were 
there no accents, words would be resolved into their origi- 
nal syllables: were there no emphasis, sentences would 
be resolved into their original words; and, in this case, 
the hearer would be under the painful necessity, first, of 
making out the words, and afterwards, their meaning. 

Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple, 
when it serves to point out only the plain meaning of any 
proposition; complex, when, besides the meaning, it marks 
also some affection or emotion of the mind; or gives a 
meaning to words, which they would not have in their 
usual acceptation. In the former case, emphasis is scarce- 
ly more than a stronger accent, with little or no change of 
tone; when it is complex, besides force, there is always 
superadded a manifest change of tone. 

The following sentence contains an example of simple 
emphasis: "And Nathan said to David, Thou art the 
man." The emphasis on thou, serves only to point out the 
meaning of the speaker, But in the sentence which fol- 
lows, we perceive an emotion of the speaker superadded 
to the simple meaning: " Why will ye die !" 

As the emphasis often fails on words in different parts 
©f the same sentence, so it is frequently required to be 
continued, with a little variation, on two, and sometimes 
three words together. The following sentence exempli- 
jies both the parts of this position; "If you seek t© mak§ 



Emphasis.] prosody. 213 

one rich, study not to increase his stores, but to dimi&sh 
his desires." Emphasis may be further distinguished, into 
the weaker and the stronger emphasis. In the sentence, 
" Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution; 5 ' 
we perceive more force on the word strengthen, than on 
any other; though it is not equal to the stress which we 
apply to the word indifferent, in the following sentence: 
" Exercise and temperance strengthen even an indifferent 
constitution. " It is also proper to remark, that the words 
exercise, temjierance , constitution, in the last example but 
one, are pronounced with greater force, than the parti- 
cles and and the ; and yet those words cannot properly be 
called emphatical : for the stress that is laid on them, is 
no more than sufficient to convey distinctly the meaning 
of each word. — From these observations it appears, that 
the smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, con- 
junctions, prepositions, &c. are, in general, obscurely 
and feebly expressed ; that the substantives, verbs, and 
more significant words, are firmly and distinctly pronoun- 
ced; and that the emphatical words, those which mark 
the meaning of a phrase, are pronounced with peculiar 
stress and energy, though varied according to the degree 
of their importance. 

Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regu- 
lator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables 
is fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is muta- 
ble when these words are ranged in sentences; the long 
being changed into short, the short into long, according 
to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: 
and as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be 
pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the quan- 
tity. A few examples will make this point very evident. 

Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and learn th£ secret power, Sec. 
Pleas'd thoii shalt hear — and thou alone shalt hear—* 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear — - 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — though not behold the fair- 
In the first of these instances, the words fiteas'd and 
hiar, being equally emphatical, are both long; whilst the 
two intermediate words thou and shalt, being rapidly- 
passed oyer, as the sense demands, are reduced to a short 
quantity. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 3. 

In the second instance, the word thou by being the most 
important, obtains the chief, or rather the sole emphasis; 
and thus, it is not only restored to its natural long quantity, 
but obtains from emphasis a still greater degree of length, 
than when pronounced in its separate state. This greater 
degree of length, is compensated by the diminution of 
quantity in the words fileas'd and hear, which are sounded 
shorter than in the preceding instance. The word shalt 
still continues short. Here we may also observe, that 
though thou is long in the first part of the verse,it becomes 
short when repeated in the second, on account of the more 
forcible emphasis beloging to the word alone, which fol- 
lows it. 

In the third instance, the word shalt having the empha- 
sis, obtains a long quantity. And though it is impossible 
to prolong the sound of this word, as it ends in a pure 
mute, yet in this, as in all similar instances, the additional 
quantity is to be made out by a rest of the voice, propor- 
tioned to the importance of the word. In this instance, 
we may also observe, that the word shalt, repeated in the 
second part of the line,*is reduced again to a short quan- 
tity. 

In the fourth instance, the word hiar placed in opposi- 
tion to the word behold, in the latter part of the line, ob- 
tains from the sense the chief emphasis, and a proportion- 
ate length. The words thou and shalt, are again reduced 
to short quantities ; and the word fileas'd lends some of 
the time which it possessed, to the more important word 
hear. 

From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity of 
our syllables is not fixed ; but governed by emphasis. — To 
observe a due measurement of time, on all occasions, is 
doubtless very difficult; but by instruction, attention, and 
practice, the difficulty may be overcome. 

Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and 
syllables, but also, in particular cases, the seat of the ac- 
cent. This is demonstrable from the following examples. 

" He shall mcrease, but I shall ^/crease. " " There is a 
difference between giving and/drgiving." " In this species 
of composition, /*/a&sibility is much more essential than 
probability." In these examples, the emphasis requires 
the accent to be placed on syllables, to which it does not 
commonly belong. 



Pauses.] prosody, 215 

In order to acquire the proper management of the em- 
phasis, the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to 
be given, is, that the speaker or reader stjudy to attain a 
just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiments 
which he is to pronounce. For to lay the emphasis with 
exact propriety, is a constant exercise of good sense and 
attention. It is far from being an inconsiderable attain- 
ment. It is one of the greatest trials of a true and just 
taste ; and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, 
and from judging accurately, of what is fittest to strike 
the feelings of others. 

There is one error, against which it is particularly pro- 
per to caution the learner; namely, that of multiplying 
emphatical words too much. It is only by a prudent re- 
serve in the use of them, that we can give them any weight, 
If they recur too often ; if a speaker or reader attempts 
to render every thing which he expresses of high import- 
ance, by a multitude of strong emphases, we soon learn 
to pay little regard to them To crowd every sentence 
with emphatical words, is like crowding all the pages of 
a book with Italic characters, which, as to the effect, is 
just the same as to use no such distinctions at all. 

Section 4. Of Pauses. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total 
cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in 
many cases, a measurable space of time. 

Pauses are equally necessary to the speaker, and the 
hearer. To the speaker, that he may take breath, with- 
out which he cannot proceed far in delivery; and that he 
may, by these temporary rests, relieve the organs of 
speech, which otherwise would be soon tired by continued 
action: to the hearer, that the ear also may be relieved 
from the fatigue, which it would otherwise endure from a 
continuity of sound; and that the understanding may have 
sufficient time to mark the distinction of sentences, and 
their several members. 

There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatical pauses; 
and next, such as mark the distinctions of the sense. An 
emphatical pause is made, after something has been said 
of peculiar moment, and on which we desire t© fix the 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, 4* 

hearer's attention. Sometimes, before such a thing is said, 
we usher it in with a pause of this nature. Such pauses 
have the same effect as a strong emphasis; and are subject 
to the same rules; especially to the caution just now given, 
of not repeating them too frequently. For as they excite 
uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if 
the importance of the matter is not fully answerable to 
such expectation, they occasion disappointment and disgust. 

But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, 
Is, to mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time 
to allow the speaker to draw his breath; and the proper 
and delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of the most 
nice and difficult articles of delivery. In all reading, and 
public speaking, the management of the breath requires a 
good deal of care, so as not to oblige us to divide words 
from one another, which have so intimate a cennexion, 
that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath, 
and without the least separation. Many sentences are 
miserably mangled, and the force of the emphasis totally 
lost, by the divisions being made in the wrong place. To 
avoid this, every one, while he is speaking or reading, 
should be very careful to provide a full supply of breath 
for what he is to utter. It is a great mistake to imagine, 
that the breath must be drawn only at the end of a period, 
when the voice is allowed to fall. It may easily be ga- 
thered at the intervals of the period, when the voice is 
only suspended for a moment; and, by this management, 
one may always have a sufficient stock for carrying on the 
longest sentence, without improper interruptions. 

Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed 
upon the manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, 
sensible conversation ; and not upon the stiff artificial man- 
ner which we acquire, from reading books according to 
the common punctuation. It will by nomeansbe sufficient 
to attend to the points used in printing; for these are far 
from marking all the pauses which ought to be made in 
speaking. A mechanical attention to these resting places 
has perhaps been one cause of monotony, by leading the 
reader to a similar tone at every stop, and a uniform ca- 
dence at every period. The primary use of points is, to 
assist the reader in discerning the grammatical construc- 
tion; and it is only as a secondary object, that they regu^ 
late his pronunciation. 



Pauses.] prosody. 217 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must 
not only be made in the right place, but also accompanied 
with a proper tone of voice, by which the nature of these 
pauses is intimated ; much more than by the length ok 
them, which can seldom be exactly measured. Sometimes* 
it is only a slight and simple suspension of voice that is 
proper ; sometimes a degree of cadence in the voice is 
required ; and sometimes that peculiar tone and cadence 
which denote the sentence to be finished. In all these 
cases, we are to regulate ourselves, by attending to the 
manner in which nature teaches us to speak, when en- 
gaged in real and earnest discourse with others. 

It is a geiieral rule, that the suspending pause should 
be used when the sense is incomplete ; and the closing 
pause, when it is finished. But there are phrases, in whieh 5 
though the sense is not completed, the voice takes the 
closing, rather than the suspending pause ; and others, in 
which the sentence finishes by the pause of suspension. 

The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall 
of the voice, or cadence, with which many readers uni- 
formly finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive of 
propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and in- 
flections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be 
diversified, according to the general nature of the dis- 
course, and the particular construction and meaning of 
the sentence. In plain narrative, and especially in argu- 
mentation, a small attention to the manner in which we 
relate a fact, or maintain an argument, in conversation, 
will show, that it is frequently more proper to raise the 
voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. Some 
sentences are so constructed, that the last words require 
a stronger emphasis than any of the preceding ; while 
others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle sound. 
Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the 
last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, suf- 
ficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper, 
And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the plaintive, 
tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will often 
require a still greater cadence of the voice. The best 
method of correcting a uniform cadence, is frequently to 
read select sentences, in which the style is pointed, and in 
which antitheses are frequently introduced : and argu - 

T 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Tones, 

mentative pieces, or such as abound with interrogatives, 
or earnest exclamation. 

Section 5. Of Tones, 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses ; 
consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or 
variations of sound which we employ in the expression 
of our sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a 
degree of tsne or inflection of the voice ; but tones, pe- 
culiarly so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and some- 
times even the whole of a discourse. 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only 
observe, that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in 
a continual state of activity, emotion, or agitation, from 
the different effects which those ideas produce in the 
speaker. Now the end of such communication being, not 
merely to lay open the ideas, but also the different feel- 
ings which they excite in him who utters them, there 
must be other signs than words, to manifest those feel- 
ings; as words uttered in a monotonous manner, can re- 
present only a similar state of mind, perfectly free from 
all activity or emotion. As the communication of these 
internal feelings, was of much more consequence in our 
social intercourse, than the mere conveyance of ideas, 
the Author of our being did not, as in that conveyance, 
leave the invention of the language of emotion, to man; 
but impressed it himself upon our nature in the same 
manner as he has done with regard to the rest oF the ani- 
mal world; all of which express their Various feelings, by 
various tones. Ours indeed, from the superior rank that 
we hold, are in a high degree more comprehensive ; as 
there is not an act of the mind, an exertion of the fancy, 
or an emotion of the heart, which lias not its peculiar 
tone, or note of the voice, by which it is to be expressed ; 
and which is suited exactly to the degree of internal 
feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of these tones, 
that the life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of delivery 
consist. 

An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over 
Saul and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has 



Tones.] prosody. 219 

been said on this subject. " The beauty of Israel is slain 
upon thy high places. How are the mighty fallen I Tell 
it not in Gath ; publish it not in the streets of Askelon : 
lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice ; lest the 
daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. Ye mountains 
of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor 
fields of offerings ; for there the shield of the mighty was 
vilely cast away ; the shield of Saul, as though he had 
not been anointed with oil !" The first of these divisions 
expresses sorrow and lamentation ; therefore the note is 
low. The next contains a spirited command, and should 
be pronounced much higher. The other sentence, in 
which he makes a pathetic address to the mountains where 
his friends were slain, must be expressed in a note quite 
different from the two former ; not so low as the first, nor 
so high as the second, in a manly, iirnr, and yet plaintive 
tone.* 

This correct and natural language of the emotions, is 
not so difficult to be attained, as most readers seem to 
imagine. Jf we enter into the spirit of the authors sen- 
timents, as well as into the meaning of his words, we shall 
not fail to deliver the words in properly i arled tones For 
there are few people, who speak EngU^j without a pro- 
vincial tone, that have not an ac >£ emphasis, 
pauses, and tones, when they utter • sentiments in 
earnest discourse; and the: bav^e not the 
same use of them, in reading . ime'iitg of 
others, may be traced to the vcr e and erroneous 
method, in which the art of readr. . ght ; v hereby all 
the various, natural, expressive tc speech, are sup- 
pressed, and a few artificial, unmeaning, reading notes, 
are substituted for them. 

But when we recommend to readers an attention to the 
tone and language of emotions, we must be understood to 
do it with proper limitation. Moderation is necessary to 
this point, as it is in other things. For when reading be- 
comes strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, 
and must be highly improper, as well as give offence to 
the hearers ; because it is inconsistent with that delicacy 
and modesty, which, on all occasions, are Indispensable. * * 



320 English grammar* [Versification* 



CHAPTER II. 

OF VERSIFICATION. 

As there are few persons who do not sometimes read 
poetical composition, it seems necessary to give the stu- 
dent some idea of that part of grammar, which explains the 
principles of versification ; that, in reading poetry, he may 
be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its 
beauties. When this lively mode of exhibiting nature and 
sentiment, is perfectly chaste, it is often found to be highly 
interesting and instructive. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number 
and varietycf syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 
verse, to the last sound or syllable of another. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. We 
shall consider these separately. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot* 
They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the 
voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a 
measured pace ; and it is necessary that the syllables 
which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, 
in some manner, be distinguished from the others. This 
distinction was made among the ancient Romans, by di- 
viding their syllables into long and short, and ascertaining 
their quantity by an exact proportion of time in sounding 
them ; the long being to the short, as two to one ; and 
the long syllables, being thus the more important, mark- 
ed the movement. In English, syllables are divided into 
accented and unaccented ; and the accented syllables be- 
ing as strongly distinguished from the unaccented, by the 
peculiar stress of the voice upon them, are equally capable 
of marking the movement, and pointing out the regular 
paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by their quan- 
tity, among the Romans. 

When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they 
are exactly of the same nature as the ancient feet, and 



Versification.] prosody* * 221 

have the same just quantity in their syllables. So that, in 
this respect, we have all that the ancients had, and some.- 
thing which they had not. We have in fact duplicates of 
each foot, yet with such a difference, as to fit them for 
different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; 
and it is upon the knowledge and right application of 
these powers, that the pleasure and effect of numbers 
chiefly depend. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three 
syllables; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two 
syllables, and four of three;, as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee- o A Dactyl- o o 

An Iambus o - An Amphibrach o - a 

A Spondee-- An Anapaest o o- 

A Pyrrhic o o A Tribrach o o o 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
Unaccented: as, " Hateful, pettish. " 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented : as, " Betray, consist.'* 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; 
us, " The pale moon." 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented : 
as, " on the tall tree.*' 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two 
latter unaccented : as, " Labourer, possible." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unac- 
cented ; and the middle one accented : as, " Delightful, 
domestic." 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and 
the last accented : as, " Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented : as, " Nu- 
merable, conquerable," 

Some of these feet may be denominated firincifial feet ; 
as pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of 
any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and 
Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet; 
because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to 
improve the verse. 

We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet, 

T2 



322. English grammar. [Versification* 

IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, 
according to the number of feet or syllables of which they 
are composed. 

1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of 
an Iambus, with an additional short syllable : as, 

Disdaining, 

Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it maybe met with 
in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with 
the Amphibrach. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to 
be continued through any great number of lines. It con- 
sists of two Iambuses. 

What place is here ! 

What scenes appear 1 

To me the rose 

No longer glows. 
it sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short syl 
lable: as, 

Upon a mountain 

Beside a. fountain. 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In places far or near, 
Or famous or obscure^ 
Where wholesome is the air. 
Or where the most impure. 
It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable: as. 
Our hearts no longer languish. 

4. The fourth form is made up oijour Iambuses. 

And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

5. The fifth species of English Iambic, consists fef Jitt 
abuses. 

How I5v'd, how valu'd once, avails thee not >% 
To whom related, or by whom begot \ 



Versification.] prosody. 223 

A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 
'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 

Be wise to-day, 'tis madness to defer: 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 

This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form 
it consists of five Iambuses ; but by the admission of other 
feet, as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, Sec. it is capable of 
many varieties. Indeed, most of the English common 
measures may be varied in the same way, as well as by 
the different position of their pauses. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the 
Alexandrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 

For th5u art but of dust ; be humble and be wise. 
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic 
rhyme , and when used sparingly, and with judgment 
occasions an agreeable variety. 

The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away; 
But fiK 9 d his word, his saving pow'r remains: 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns* 

7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is 
made up of seven Iambuses. 

The Lord descended from above, 
And bow'd the heavens high. 
This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now 
broken into two ; the first containing four feet, and the 
second three: 

. When all thy mercies, O my God ! 

. My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. 
In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even 
syllables ; and every line considered by itself, is, in gene- 
ral, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed, 

TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 

1 . The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists 
of one Trochee and a long syllable. 



224 English grammar, [Versification, 

Tumult cease, 

Sink to peace. 
This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be 
used on serious occasions. 

2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists of 
two feet ; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for 
any very serious purpose, 

6n the mSuntain 

By a fountain. 
It sometimes contains two feet or Trochees, with an addi- 
tional long syllable : as, 

In thg days of old 

Fables plainly told. 

3. The third species consists of three trochees : as, 

When our hearts are mourning: 
or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable : as- 
Restless mortals toil for naught ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders. Mortals, try ; 
There you cannot seek in vain ; 
For to seek her is to gain. 

4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trc 
-diees: as, 

Round us roars the tempest louder. 
This form may take an additional long syllable, as follows 

Idle after dinner in his chair, 

Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
"But this measure is very uncommon. 

5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncormv> \ 
It is composed of Jive trochees. 

All that walk on foot or inde in chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of 
\ six trochees ; as, 

On a mountain, stretch'd beneath a hoary willow, 
Lay a shepherd swa\n, and viey/'d the rolling billow, 



Versification.] prosody. 225 

This seems to be the longest Trochaic line, that our 
language admits. 

In all these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be 
placed on the odd syllables. 

The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, wc 
shall give only one example of one species of it: 
Fr5m the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
Rise we to higher, Sec. 

ANAPAESTIC verses are divided into several species. 

1. The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single ana- 
paest: as, 

But in vain, 

They complain. 
This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying 
the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, wc 
might make a trochaic. And therefore the first and sim- 
plest form of our genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of 
two Anapaests : as, 

But hfs courage 'gan fail, 

Bor no arts could avail. 
This form admits of an addition short syllable. 

Then his courage 'gan frdl him, 

For no arts could avail hiu*. 

2. The second species consist of three *\napsests. 

ye woods, spread your branches apace ; 
To your deepest recesses I fly; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chace; 

I would vanish from every eye. 
This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both 
in solemn and cheerful subjects. l , 

3. The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of 
four Anap<£Sts. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway ; 

And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end : 
as, 

On the warm cheek of youth, smiles and roses are 

blending. 



226 English grammar. [Versification. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal 
feet, in their more simple forms. They are capable of 
numerous variations, by the intermixture of those feet 
with each other ; and by the admission of the secondary 
feet. 

We have observed, that English verse is composed of 
feet formed by accent ; and that when the accent falls on 
vowels, the feet are equivalent to those formed by quan- 
tity. That the student may clearly perceive this difference, 
we shall produce a specimen of each kind. 

O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the stately hind. 

Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each se- 
cond syllable. In the following line, we shall find the 
same Iambic movement, but formed by accent on conso- 
nants, except the last syllable. 

Then rustling, crackling, crashing thunder down. 

Here the time of the short accented syllables, is com- 
pensated by a short pause, at the end of each word to 
which they belong. 

We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry 
is varied and improved, by the admission of secondary 
feet into its composition. 

Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 
The first foot here is a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. 

O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 
This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics, 

Innumerable before th' Almighty's throne. 
Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. 

See the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 
In this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second a 
genuine Spondee by quantity; the third a Spondee by ac- 
cent. 

In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the 
second a Spondee. 

That on weak wings from far pursues your flight. 

From the preceding view of English versification, we 
may see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. 
For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient 



Versification.] prosody 5 227 

poetic feet, in our heroic measure, but we have, as before 
observed, duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though 
differing in measure,* and which make different impressions 
on the ear; an opulence peculiar to our language, and which 
may be the source of a boundless variety. 

OF POETICAL PAUSES. 

There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and one 
for melody, perfectly distinct from each other. The former 
may be called sentential, the latter harmonic pauses. 

The sentential pauses are those which are known to us 
by the name of stops, and which have names given them ; 
as the comma, semicolon, colon, and period. 

The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final 
pause, and the ctsural pause. These sometimes coincide 
with the sentential pause, sometimes have an independent 
state, that is, exist where there is no stop in the sense. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, 
closes the verse, and marks the measure: the caesura! 
divides it into equal or unequal parts. 

The final pavise preserves the melody, without inter- 
fering with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly 
marks the bound of the metre; and being made only by 
a suspension of the voice, not by any change of note, it 
can never affect the sense. This is not the only advan- 
tage gained to numbers, by this final pause or stop of 
suspension. It also prevents that monotony, that same- 
ness of note at the end of lines, which, however, pleas- 
ing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. For as 
this final pause has no peculiar note of its own, but 
always takes that which belongs to the preceding word, it 
changes continually with the matter, and is as various as 
the sense. 

It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, 
marks the difference between prose and verse; which will 
be evident from the following arrangement of a fcT poeti 
cal lines. 

* Movement and measure are thus distinguished. Movement expresses 
the progressive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long 
to short, or vice versa. Measure signifies the proportion of time^ both in 
sounds and pauses. 



228 English gkammar. [Versification* 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
bidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into" the 
•world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater 
man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing hea- 
venly muse !" 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that 
this Was verse; but would take it for poetical prose. By 
properly adjusting the final pause, we shall restore^ the 
passage to its true state of verse. 

Of man's firit first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man « 

Restore us, and reg&n the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse ! 
These examples show the necessity of reading blank 
verse, in such a manner, as to make every line sensible 
to the ear ; for, what is the use of melody, or for what 
end has the poet composed in verse, if, in reading his 
lines, we suppress his numbers, by omitting the final 
pause ; and degrade them, by our pronunciation, into 
mere prose ? 

The Caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth 
syllable of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot 
as, 

The silver eel" in shining volumes roll'd, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropp'd with gold. 
On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot i 
as, 



Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd 



O'er heaps of ruin" stalk'd the stately hind, 
On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot: as, 

Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplor'd, 

Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
A line may be divided into three portions, by tws 
cruras: as, 

Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft" 

Look'd up to heav'n. 
' There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to 
the nature of the couplet, by introducing semi-pause^ 



Versification.] prosody. 229 

which divide the line into four pauses. This semi-pause 

may be called a demi-c&sura. 

The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 

Glows' while he reads" but trembles' as he writes 
Reason' the card" but passion' is the gale. 
Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm. 

OF MELODY, HARMONY, AND EXPRESSION. 

Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, 
the constituent parts of verse, we shall now point out* 
more particularly, their use and importance. 

Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great 
objects of poetic numbers. By melody, is meant, a plea- 
sing effect produced on the ear, from an apt arrangement 
of the constituent parts of verse, according to the laws of 
measure and movement. By harmony, an affect produ- 
ced by an action of the mind, in comparing the different 
members of a verse with each other, and perceiving a 
due and beautiful proportion between themu. By ex- 
pression, such a choice and arrangement of the constitu- 
ent parts of verse, as serve to enforce and illustrate the 
thought or the sentiment. 

We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- 
fication, both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 

1st, With regard to melody. 

From the examples which we have given of verses 
composed in all the principal feet, it is evident that a 
considerable portion of melody is found in each of them,* 
though in different degrees. Verses made up of pure 
Iambics have an excellent melody. 

That the final and czesural pauses contribute to melody, 
cannot be doubted by any person who reviews the in- 
stances which we have already given of those pauses, 
To form lines of the first melody, the caesura must be at 
the end of the second, or of the third foot, or in the mid 
die of the third. 

2d, With respect to harmony. 

Verses composed of Iambics have indeed a fine har- 
mony : but as the stress of the voice, in repeating such 
verses, is always in the same places, that is, on every 
second syllable, such a uniformity would disgust the ear 

U 



230 English grammar, [Versification* 

in a long succession ; and therefore such changes were 
sought for, as might introduce the pleasure of variety, 
without prejudice to melody ; or which might even con- 
tribute to its improvement. Of this nature was the in- 
troduction of the Trochee, to form the first foot of an 
heroic verse : as, 

Favours to none, to all she smiles extends, 
O'ft she rejects, but never once offends. 
Each of these lines begins with a Trochee ; the re- 
maining feet are in the Iambic movement. In the fol- 
lowing line of the same movement, the fourth foot is a 
Trochee. 

All these our notions vain, sees and derides. 
The next change admitted for the sake of variety, with- 
out prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics 
and Spondees : in which, two impressions in the one foot 
make up for the want of one in the other ; and two long 
syllables compensate two short ones, so as to make the 
sum of^the quantity of the two feet, equal to two Iambics* 
On the green bank to look into the clear 
Smooth lake that to me seem'd another sky. 
Stood rul'd stood vast infinitude conf In 5 d. 
The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. 

Which many a bard had chanted many a day. 

In this line, we find that two of the feet are Amphi- 
brachs ; and three, Iambics. 

We have before shown that the cse sura improves the 
melody of verse; and we shall now speak of its other more 
important office, that of being the chief source of harmo- 
ny in numbers. 

The first and lowest perception of harmony, by means 
of the caesura, arises from comparing two members of the 
same line with each other, divided in the manner to be 
seen in the instances before mentioned; because the beau- 
ty of proportion in the members, according to each of these 
divisions, is founded in nature ; being as one to two — two 
to three — or three to two. 

The next degree arises from comparing the members 
of a couplet, or two contiguous lines : as, 

See the bold youth" strain up the threatening steep, 
Rush through the thickets" down the valleys sweep, 



Versification.] prosody. 231 

Here we. find the caesura of the first line, at the end of 
the second foot; and in the middle of the third foot, in the 
last line. 

Hang o'er their coursers' heads" with eager speed, 
And earth rolls back" beneath the flying steed. 
In this couplet, the caesura is at the end of the third foot, 
in the first line ; and of the second, in the latter line. 

The next perception of harmony arises from comparing 
a greater number of lines, and observing the relative pro- 
portion of the couplets to each other, in point of similarity 
and diversity, as : 

Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 
At once the monarch's" and the muse's seats, 
Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 
Unlock your springs" and open all your shades. 
Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 
When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 
Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 
When through the clouds" he drives the trembling 
doves. 
In this way, the comparison of lines variously appor- 
tioned by the different seats of the three csesuras, may be 
the source of a great variety of harmony, consistent with 
the finest melody. This is still increased by the intro- 
duction of two csesuras, and much more by that of semi- 
pauses. The semi-pauses double every where the terms 
of comparison ; give a more distinct view of the whole and 
the parts; afford new proportions of measurement, and 
an ampler scope for diversity and equality, those sources 
of beauty in harmony. 

Warms' in the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life" extends/ through all extent. 
Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent. 

3d, The last object in versification regards expression. 

When men express their sentiments by words, they na- 
turally fall into that sort of movement of the voice, 
which is consonant to that produced by the emotion in 
the mind; and the Dactylic or Anapaestic, the Trochaic, 
Iambic, or Spondaic, prevails even in common discourse^ 
according to the different nature of the sentiments ex- 



232 English grammar. [Versification'. 

pressed. To imitate nature, therefore, the poet, in ar- 
ranging his words in the artificial composition of verse, 
must take care to make the movement correspond to the 
sentiment, by the proper use of the several kinds of feet : 
and this is the first and most general source of expression 
in numbers. 

That a judicious management of the feet and pauses 
may be peculiarly expressive of particular operations and 
sentiments, will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a few 
select examples under each of those heads, 

In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan 
are shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, 
which delmn us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed 
. posture. 

So stretch'd out huge in length the arch fiend lay. 
The next example affords instances of the power of a 
Trochee beginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus, 

" ~ ~~ And sheer within 

Lights on his feet : as when a prowling wolf 
Leaps o'er the fence with ease into thS fold. 

The Trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the 
act of lighting: the Iambus that follows, fixes him— 
'* Lights on his feet." 

The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, 
makes us see the wolf— « leap o'er the fence."-.But as 
the mere act of leaping over the fence, is not the only 
circumstance to be attended to, but also the facility with 
which it is done, this is strongly marked, not only by the 
smooth foot which follows— « with ease"— itself very ex- 
pressive, but likewise by a Pyrrhic preceding the last 
foot— "into the fold 55 — which indeed carries the wolf— 
" with ease into the fold." 

The following instances show the effects produced by 
.caesuras, so placed as to divide the line into very unequal 
portions : such as that after the first, and before the last 
semipede. 



— « — -Thus with the year 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 
Day" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 
Here the csesura after the first semipede Day> stops us 



Versification.] prosody. 233 

unexpectedly, and forcibly impresses the imagination with 

the greatness of the author's loss, the loss of sight- 
No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd, but^all 
The multitude of angels, with a shout * 
Loud" as from numbers without number" sweet 

As from blest voices uttering joy. 

There is something very striking In this uncommon 

caesura, which sudenly stops the reader, to reflect on the 

importance of a particular word. 

We shall close the subject, with an example containing 

the united powers of many of the principles which have 

been explained. 

Dire was the tossing" deep the groans" Despair 
Tended the sick" busiest from cotich to couch" 
And over them triumphant death'' his dart" 
Shook" but delay'd to strike. 
Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody. 

are taken from < k Sheridan's Art of Reading:" to which 

book the Compiler refers the ingenious student, for more 

extensive information on the subject, 



U2 



( 234 ) 

PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written compo- 
sition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or 
stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses 
which the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require* 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Se- 
micolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon* 
double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double 
that of the colon. 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot 
be defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The 
same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slow- 
er time ; but the proportion between the pauses should be 
ever invariable. 

In order more clearly to determine the proper applica- 
tion of the points, we must distinguish between an imfier* 
feet fihrase^ a simfile sentence^ and a comfiound sentence. 

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not 
amount to a proposition or sentence : as, " Therefore ; 
in haste | studious of praise." 

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite 
verb, expressed or implied : as, " Temperance preserves 
health." 

A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one 
finite verb, either expressed or understood ; or it consists 
of two or more simple sentences connected together : as, 
" Good nature mends and beautifies all objects ;" " Virtue 
refines the affections, but vice debases them." 

In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of 
them, may be accompanied with several adjuncts : as, the 
object, the end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, 
and the like : and the subject or verb may be either im^ 
mediately connected with them, or mediately ; that is, by 

* As punctuation is intended to aid both the sense, and the pro- 
nunciation of a sentence, it could not have been exclusively dis- 
cussed under the part of Syntax, or of Prosody. The nature of 
the subject, its extent and importance, and the grammatical knowl- 
edge which it presupposes, have induced us to make it a distinct 
and subsequent article. 



Comma.] punctuation. 235 

being connected with something which is connected with 
some other, and so on : as, " The mind, unoccupied with 
useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of trifles and fol- 
ies." 

Members of sentences may be divided into simple and 
compound members* See page 125. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sen- 
tence, which, though very closely connected in sense 
and construction, require a pause between them. 

Rule i. With respect to a simple sentence, the several 
words of which it consists have so near a relation to each 
other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a 
full stop at the end of it : as, " The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom." " Every part of matter swarms 
with living creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and 
the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable ad- 
juncts, may admit of a pause immediately before the verb : 
as, " The good taste of the present age, has not allowed 
us to neglect the cultivation of the English language :" 
w To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real 
defect in character." 

Rule 11. When the connexion of the different parts of a 
simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a 
comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and at 
the end of this phrase: as, u I remember, with gratitude 
his goodness to me :" " His work is, in many resfiects, very 
imperfect. It is, therefore, not much approved," But when 
these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the com- 
ma is better omitted ; as, *' Flattery is certainly pernici- 
ous;" u There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is fre- 
quent occasion for commas. This will appear from the 
following rules ; some of which apply to simple, as well 
as to compound sentences. 

Rule hi. When two or more nouns occur in the same 
construction, they are parted by a comma : as, ** Reason^ 
virtue, answer one great aim :" " The husband, wife s 



236 English grammar. ' [Comma. 

and children, suffered extremely:"* " They took away their 
furniture, clothes, and stock in trade :" " He is alternately 
supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother." 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with re- 
gard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction: as, 
6< Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other:'" 
u Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition :" " There 
is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue 
and vice, wisdom and folly;" But if the parts connected 
are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the 
conjunction is expressed : as, " Romances may be said to 
be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil ;" 
4i Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and 
the vigour of our minds." 

Rule iv. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same 
substantive are likewise separated by commas : as, u Plain 
honest truth, wants no artificial covering ;" " David was 
a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A v/oman, gentle, sen- 
sible, well-educated, and religious ;" " The most innocent 
pleasures are the sweetest, the most rational, the most af- 
fecting, and the most lasting." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a con- 
junction, are not separated by a comma : as, " True worth 
is modest and retired;" " Truth is fair and artless, simple 
and sincere, uniform and consistent." " We must be 
wise or foolish ; there is no medium." 

Rule v. Two or more verbs, having the same nomina- 
tive case, and immediately following one another, are also 
separated by commas: as, (t Virtue supports in adver- 
sity, moderates in prosperity :" " In a letter, we may ad- 
vise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are 
an exception to the above rule : as, " The study of natu- 
ral history expands and elevates the mind ;" " Whether 
we eat or drink, labour or sleep, we should be moderate." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, 
and exception : as, " A man, fearing, serving, and loving 
his Creator ;" " He was happy in being loved, esteemed, 

* As a considerable pause in pronunciation, is necessary between the 
last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. But 
as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, under 
Rule IV. the comma is there properly omitted. See WALKER's Ele- 
ments of Elocution, 



Comma.J punctuation. 237 

and respected ;" " By being admired and flattered, we 
are often corrupted/ 5 

Rule vi. Two or more adverbs immediately succeed- 
ing one another, must be separated by commas: as r 
" We are fearfully, wonderfully framed;" " Success ge- 
nerally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigor- 
ously, in what we undertake." 

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, 
they are not parted by the comma: as, " Some men sin 
deliberately and presumptuously ;" "There is no mid- 
dle state ; we must live virtuously or vitiously." 

Rule vii. When participles are followed by something 
that depends on them, they are generally separated from 
the rest of the sentence by a comma : as, " The king, 
approving the plan, put it in execution;" " His talents, 
formed for great enter/irises, could not fail of rendering 
him conspicuous;" " All mankind compose one family > 
assembled finder the eye of one common Father." 

Rule viii. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase 
or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such in- 
tervening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity: 
as, " They set out early, and, before the close of the 
day, arrived at the destined place." 

Rule ix. Expressions in a direct address, are separated 
from the rest ot the sentence by commas: as, " My son, 
give me thy heart;" " I am obliged to you, my friend*, 
for your many favours." 

Rule x. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood ab- 
solute, are separated by commas from the body of the 
sentence : as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the 
estate;" "At length, their ministry performed, and race 
well run, they left the world in peace ;" " To confess 
the truth, I was much in fault." 

Rule xi. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to 
other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or 
illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set 
off by commas: as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, 
was eminent. for his zeal and knowledge;" "The but- 
terfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper 
name, they are not divided : as, u Paul the apostle ; ,? 
'* The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent boofe." 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. [Comma, 

Rule xii. Simple members of sentences connected by 
comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a 
comma: as, " As the hart panteth after the water brooks, 
so doth my soul pant after thee;" " Better is a dinner of 
herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it.'* 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the 
comma is, in general, better omitted: as, " How much 
better is it to get wisdom than gold !" " Mankind act often- 
er from caprice than reason." 

Rule xiii. When words are placed in opposition to each 
other, or with some marked variety, they require to be 
distinguished by a comma: as, 

" Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 

Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 
" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, 
not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views 
and conduct of one another." 

Sometimes when the word with which the list preposi- 
tion agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma be- 
fore it: as, " Many states were in alliance with, and un- 
der the protection of Rome." 

The same rule and restrictions must be applied when 
two or more nouns refer to the same preposition: as, 
" He was composed both under the threatening, and at the 
approach, of a cruel and lingering death;" "He was 
not only the king, but the father of his people." 

Rule xiv. A remarkable expression, or a short obser- 
vation, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be 
properly marked with a comma: as, "It hurts a man's 
pride to say, I do not know;" « Plutarch calls lying, the 
vice of slaves." 

Rule xv. Relative pronouns are connective words, 
and generally admit a comma before them: as, "He 
preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and 
pious life;" " There is no charm in the female sex, which 
can supply the place of virtue." 

But when two members, or phrases, are closely con- 
nected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the 
antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be 
omitted: as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue 
must make;" "A man who is of a detracting spirit, will 
misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put to* 



Comma.] punctuation. 239 

gether." In the latter example, the assertion is not of 
u a man in general/' but of " a man who is of a detract- 
ing spirit;" and therefore they should not be separated. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the 
relative is not expressed, but understood: as, " It was 
from piety, warm and unaffected, that his morals derived 
strength." " This sentiment, habitual and strong, influ- 
enced his whole conduct." In both of these examples, 
the relative and verb which was, are understood. 

Rule xvi. A simple member of a sentence, contained 
within another, or following another, must be distinguish- 
ed by the comma: as, " To improve time whilst we are 
blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." 
u Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity, 
and the evils of human life, we make that vanity, and we 
increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are 
very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, 
" Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its govern- 
ing verb, with several words between them, those words 
should generally have a comma at the end of them ; as ? 
li It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade 
one another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common 
dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided 
by commas: as, u To relieve the indigent, to comfort the 
afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserv- 
ing, are humane and noble employments." 

Rule xvii. When the verb to be is followed by a verb 
in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be 
made the nominative case to it, the former is generally 
separated from the latter verb, by a comma : as, " The 
most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations 
with bad men." ** The first and most obvious remedy 
against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations 
with bad men." 

Rule xviii. When adjuncts or circumstances are of im- 
portance, and often when the natural order of them is in- 
verted, they may be set off by commas: as, "Virtue must 
be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by 
daily and repeated exertions." ''Vices, like shadows^, 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Semicolon, 

towards the evening or life, grow great and monstrous." 
" Our interests are interwoven by threads innumerable;" 
" By threads innumerable^ our interests are interwoven." 

Rule xix. Where a verb is understood, a comma may 
often be properly introduced. This is a general rule 
which, besides comprising some of the preceding rules 
will apply to many cases not determined by any of them : 
as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity ; 
from curiosity, knowledge." In this example, the verb 
tt arises" is understood before " curiosity" and " know- 
ledge;" at" which words a considerable pause is necessary, 

Rule xx. The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, se- 
condly, formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the 
contrary, in the next filacejn short,a,nd all other words and 
phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated 
from the context by a comma : as, u Remember thy best 
and first friend ; formerly, the supporter of thy infancy, 
and the guide of thy childhood; now, the guardian of 
thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years." < J He 
feared want, hence, he over- valued riches." tt This con- 
duct may heal the difference, nay, it may constantly pre- 
vent any in future." "Finally, IshaJJ only repeat what 
has been often justly said." " If the spring put forth no 
blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in au- 
tumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be trifled away without im- 
provement, riper years may be contemptible, and old age 
miserable." 

In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great re- 
gard must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the 
proportion which they bear to one another. An attention 
to the sense of any passage, and to the clear, easy com- 
munication of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of the 
preceding rules, enable the student to adjust the proper 
pauses, and the places for inserting the commas. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sen* 
tence into two or more parts, not so closely connected 
as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so 
little dependent on each other, as those which are dis- 
tinguished by a colon. 



Colon.] PUNCTUATION. 241 

The semicolon is sometimes used, when the pxeceding 
member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete 
sense, but depends on the following clause : and some* 
times when the sense of that member would be complete 
without the concluding one : as in the following instan- 
ces : " As the desire of approbation, when it works accord- 
ing to reason, improves the amiable part of our species 
in every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more de- 
structive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

" Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from 
worldly affairs,- is not what religion requires ; nor does it 
even enjoin a long retreat from them." 

' s Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the 
bottom." 

u Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her 
operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; 
that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all 
future generations will continue to make discoveries, of 
which we have not the least idea." 

CHAPTER III. 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less connected than those which are sepa- 
rated by a semicolon ; but not so independent as sepa- 
rate distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three fol- 
lowing cases. 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, 
but followed by some supplemental remark, or further il- 
lustration of the subject : as, " Nature felt her inability to 
extricate herself from the consequences of guilt : the gos- 
pel reveals the plan of Divine interposition and aid/' 
" Nature confessed some atonement to be necessary : the 
gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connect- 
ing or concluding sentiment : as, " A divine legislator, 
uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty governor, 
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing 

X 



242 English grammar. [Period* 

us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, 
and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these 
are the considerations which overawe the world, which sup- 
port integrity, and check guilt." 

3. The Colon is commonly used when an example, a 
quotation, or a speech is introduced: as, "The Scrip- 
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in 
these words : < God is love/" u He was often heard to 
say: * I have done with the world, and I am willing to 
leave it. 5 " • 

The propriety of using a colon, or simicolon, is some- 
times determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or 
not expressed : as, 4t Do not flatter yourselves with the 
hope of perfect happiness : there is no such thing in the 
world." " Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of 
perfect happiness; for there is no such thing in the world." 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and 
not connected in construction with the following sen- 
tence, it is marked with a Period. 

Some sentences are independent of each other, both in 
their sense and construction : as, " Fear God. Honour 
the king. Have charity towards all men." Others are 
independent only in their grammatical construction: as, 
" The Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire 
to promote our happiness, or in the plan of his adminis- 
tration. One light always shines upon us from above. 
One clear and direct path is always pointed out to man." 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two sen- 
tences, though they are joined by a disjunctive or copu- 
lative conjunction. For the quality of the point does not 
always depend on the connective particle, but on the 
seq|e and structure of sentences: as, "Recreations, 
though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady 
government, to keep them within a due and limited pro- 
vince. But such as are of an irregular and vitcous nature, 
are not to be governed, but to be banished from every well- 
regulated mind." 



Interrogation.] punctuation. 243 

" He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice 
of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid cen- 
sure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that 
will narrowly inspect him in every part." 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word : 
as, «M. S. P. S. N. B. A. D. O. S. N. S." Sec. 

CHAPTER V. 

Of the dash, Notes of Interrogation and exclamation* &c 



THE DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and 
incoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, 
where the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a signifi- 
cant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected 
tarn in the sentiment : as, u If thou art he, so much re- 
spected once — but, oh! how fallen! how degraded !" " If 
acting conformably to the will of our Creator ; — if pro- 
moting the welfare of mankind around us ;--if securing 
our own happiness ; — are objects of the highest moment : 
—then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend 
the great interests of religion and virtue." 

" Here lies the great False marble, where ? 

"Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 
Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, 
there are others, which denote a different modulation of 
voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are, 
The Interrogation point, ? 
The Exclamation point, ! 
The Parenthesis. ( ) 

INTERROGATION. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interroga- 
tive sentence ; that is when a question is asked : as, " tVho 
will accompany me ?" " Shall we always be friends V y 

Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, 
ought to be terminated by points of interrogation : as, 
" Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" 



244 English grammar* [Exclamation. 

f < At whose command do the planets perform their constant 
revolutions ?" 

A point of interrogation is improper afler sentences 
which are not questions, but only expressions of admira- 
tion, or of some other emotion. 

<4 How many instances have we of chastity and excel- 
lence in the fair sex I" 

" With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us 
in the choice of our companions !" 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases 
where it is only said a question has been asked, and where 
the words are not used as a question. " The Cyprians ask- 
ed me, why I wept." To give this sentence the interrog- 
ative from, it should be expressed thus: " The Cyprians 
said to me, ' Why dost thou weep ?'" 

EXCLAMATION. 

The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of 
sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, 8cc. and also to invo- 
cations or addresses: as, 4< My friend ! this conduct amazes 
me !" u Bless the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all his 
benefits!" 

" Oh ! had we both our humble state maintain'd, 

" And safe in peace and poverty remain'd i" 

" Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !" 

It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an 
interrogative and exclamatory sentence ; but a sentence, 
in which any wonder or admiration is expressed, and no 
answer either expected or implied, may be always properly 
terminated by a note of exclamation: as, "How much 
vanity in the pursuits of men!*' " Who can sufficiently 
express the goodness of our Creator 1'* " What is more 
amiable than virtue !" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indetermi- 
nate as to their quantity of time, and may be equivalent 
in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as tire 
sense may require. They mark an elevation of the voice. 

The utility of the points of Interrogation and exclama- 
tion, appears from the following examples, in which the 
meaning is signified and discriminated solely by the points, 
" What condescension !' * 
^ What condescension V* 



Parenthesis.] punctuation. 245 

4i How great was the sacrifice !" 
u How great was the sacrifice ?" 

PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary in- 
formation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a 
sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without in- 
juring the grammatical construction: as, 

" Know thfcn this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
" Virtue alone is happiness below," 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
" (What can exalt his bounty more?) for thee." 

u To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or 
five letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." 
" Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know 
the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as 
long as he liveth ?" 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides 
with the rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the 
parenthetical characters. The following instances are 
therefore improper uses of the parenthesis. " Speak you 
(who saw) his wonder in the deep." " Every planet (as 
the Creator has made nothing in vain) is most probably 
inhabited." " He found them asleep again ; (for their eyes 
were heavy;) neither knew they what to answer him." 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the 
voice, and may be accompanied with every point which 
the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters 
were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind 
of stop which the member has y that precedes it ; and to 
contain that stop within the parenthetical marks. We 
must, however, except cases of interrogation and excla- 
mation : as, " While they wish to please, (and why should 
they not wish it?) they disdain dishonourable means." 
" It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) 
which was borrowed from paganism." See the Octavo 
Grammar^ on this subject. 



There are other characters, which are frequently made 

X2 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Apostrophe* 

use of in composition, and which may be explained in this 
place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus' is used to abbreviate or 
shorten a word : as, 'tis for it is ; tho 9 for though ; e 9 en for 
even ; judg'd forjudged. Its chief use is to show the gen- 
itive case of nouns : as, " A man's property ; a woman's 
ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus A is placed where some word 
happens to be left out in writing, and vi hich is inserted 
over the line. This mark is also called a circumflex, 
when placed over a particular vowel, to denote a long syl- 
lable: as, ifc Euphrates." 

A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting 
compounded words; as, " Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, 
self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former 
part is written or printed at the end of one line, and the 
latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it is 
placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of 
the second. 

The Acute Accent, marked thus ': as, " Fancy." The 
Grave thus': as, "Favour." 

In English, the Accentual marks are chiefly used in 
spelling-books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which 
require a particular stress of the voice in pronunciation. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscrimi- 
nately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, 
some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the 
former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner: "Mi- 
nor, mineral, lively, livid, rival, river." 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable, is this': 
as, "Rosy:" and a short one this", as, "Folly." This 
last mark is called a breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked", consists of two points placed 
over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make 
a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables : as, " Cre- 
ator, coadjutor, aerial." 

A Section, marked thus, § is the division of a discourse, 
or chapter, into less parts or portions. 

A Paragraph 1T denotes the beginning of a new subject, 
or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This 



. Paragraphs.] punctuation. 247 

character is chiefly used in the Old, and in the New Tes- 
taments. 

A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally 
placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which 
is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his 
own words; and two apostrophes are placed at the conclu- 
sion: as, 

" The proper study of mankind is man." 

Crotchets or Brackets [J serve to enclose a word or 
sentence, which is to be explained in a note, or the ex- 
planation itself, or a word or a sentence which is intended 
to supply some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 

An Index or Handle? 3 points out a remarkable passage, 
orsomethirag that requires particular attention. 

A R V is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or 

{ three lines, which have the same rhyme. 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words with 
one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repe- 
tition in writing or printing. 

An Asterisk, or little star,* directs the reader to some 
note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two 
or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some 
letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, 
or some defect in the manuscript. 

An Ellipsis — is also used, when some Letters in a word, 
or some words in a verse, are omitted : as, " The k— g," 
for « the king," 

An Obelisk, which is marked thus,f and Parrallels 
thus,|| together with the letters of the Alphabet and figures, 
are used as references to the margin, or bottom of the 
page. 

PARAGRAPHS, 

It may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few 
general directions respecting the division of a composition 
into paragraphs. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very 
numerous in small compass, should be separated into parar 
graphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, 
the larger divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. 



243 English grammar. [Capitals. 

And it will have a good effect to form the breaks, when it 
can properly be done, at sentiments of the most weight 
or that call for peculiar attention. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, some* 
times naturally point out the separations into paragraphs : 
and each of these, when of great length, will again require 
subdivisions at their most distinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be form- 
eel into several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, 
exhibiting the connexion of the broken parts, will give 
beauty and force to the division. See the Octavo Grammar. 

directions respecting the use of capital letters. 

It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with 
a capital : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave 
the writing or printing a crowded and confused appear- 
ance, it has been discontinued. It is, however, very prop- 
er to begin with a capital. 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, 
or any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sen- 
tences are totally independent, after a note of interroga- 
tion or exclamation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sen- 
tences, are thrown into one general group ; or if the con- 
struction of the latter sentences depends on the former, all 
of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter ; 
as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? 
and the scorners delight in their scorning? and fools 
hate knowledge?" "Alas! how different! yet how like 
the same !" 

3. The appellations of the Deity : as, "God, Jehovah, 
the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, 
the Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
rivers, ships: as, u George, York, the Strand, the Alps, 
the Thames, the Seahorse." 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : 
as," Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 



Capitals.] punctuation. 249 

colon, or when it is in a direct form : as, " Always re- 
member this ancient maxim: 'Know thyself.'" "Our 
great Lawgiver says, ' Take up thy cross daily, and fol- 
low me/" But when a quotation is brought in obliquely 
after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, "Solomon 
observes, i that pride goes before destruction."' 

The first word of an example may also very properly 
begin with a capital: as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 
books: as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Lan- 
guage;" "Thomson's Seasons;" " Rollin's Ancient 
History." 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun i, and the interjection O, are written 
in capitals : as, " I write :" " Hear, O earth !" 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with 
capitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the 
principal subject of the composition, 



( 250 ) 



APPENDIX. 

CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING 
YOUNG PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCU- 
RACY. TO BE STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED A 
COMPETENT KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PERSPICUITY 

IS the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essen- 
tial in every kind of writing, that for the want of it no- 
thing can atone. It is not to be considered as merely a 
sort of negative virtue, or freedom from defect. It has 
higher merit: it is a degree of positive beauty. We are 
pleased with an author, and consider him as deserving 
praise, who frees us from all fatigue of searching for his 
meaning ; who carries .us through his subject without any 
embarrassment or confusion; whose style flows always 
like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very 
bottom. 

The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression 
consists of two parts: and requires attention, first, to Sin- 
gle Words and Phrase ; and then, to the Construction of 
Sentences. 

PART I. 

Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with 
resftect to single Words and Phrases. 

These qualities of style, considered with regard to 
words and phrases, requires the following properties: 
purity, propriety, and precision. 

chapter i. 
OF PURITY. 

■ purity of style consists in the use of such words, and 
such constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language 



Propriety.] ¥krs?icuity,&c. 251 

which we speak; in opposition to words and phrases that 
are taken from other languages, or that are ungramma- 
tical, obsolete, new-coined, or used without proper au- 
thority. All such words and phrases as the following 
should be avoided: Quoth he; I wist not ; erewhile ; be- 
hest; selfsame ; delicatesse, for delicacy; politesse, for po- 
liteness; hauteur, for haughtiness; incumberment,connexU 
ty martyrised, for encumbrance, connexion martyred. 

Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity re- 
quires them, should never be admitted into our composition, 
Barren languages may need such assistance, but ours is not 
one of these. A multitude of Latin words, in particular, 
have, of late, been poured in upon our language. On 
some occasions, they give an appearance of elevation and 
dignity to style; but they often render it stiff and appa- 
rently forced. In general, a plain, native style, is more 
intelligible to all readers ; and, by a proper management 
of words, it can be made as strong and expressive as this 
Latinised English, or any foreign idioms. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language is the selection of such words as 
the best usage has appropriated to those ideas, which we 
intend to express by them ; in opposition to low expressions, 
and to words and phrases which would be less significant 
of the ideas that we mean to convey. Style may be pure, 
that is, it may be strictly English, without Scotticisms or 
Gallicisms, or un grammatical, irregluar expressions of any 
kind, and may, nevertheless, be deficient in propriety : for 
the words may be ill chosen, not adapted to the subject, 
nor fully expressive of the author's sense. 

To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and phra- 
ses, we must avoid low expressions ; supply words that arc 
wanting ; be careful not to use the shine word in different 
senses ; avoid the injudicious use of technical phrases, equi- 
vocal or ambigwms words, unintelligible expressions, and 
allsuchwordsandphrasesasarcnotudapted to our meaning. 

1. Avoid low expressions : such as, H Topsyturvy, hurly- 
burly, pellmell; having a month's mind for a thing; cur- 



252 appendix. [Propriety* 

rying favour with a person ; dancing attendance on the 
great," &c. 

" Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, 
were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence," The 
phrase " left to shift for themselves" is rather a low phrase, 
and too much in the familiar style to be proper in a grave 
treatise. 

2. Suftfily words that are wanting. " Arbitrary power I 
look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as 
a savage is a happier state of life than a slave at the oar:" 
it should have been, " as much as the state of a savage is 
happier than that of a slave at the oar." " He has not 
treated this subject liberally, by the views of others as 
well as his own;" «< By adverting to the views of others," 
would have been better. a This generous action greatly 
increased his former services;" it should have been, 
"greatly increased the merit of his former services." " By 
the pleasures of the imagination or fancy (which I shall 
use promiscuously) I here mean," Sec. This passage 
ought to have had the word "terms" supplied, which 
would have made it correct: u terms which I shall use 
promiscuously." 

It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles 
and prepositions are sometimes improperly omitted; as in 
the following instances: "How immense the difference 
between the pious and profane *!" " Death is the common 
lot of all ; of good men and bad." They should have had 
the article and preposition repeated: "How immense 
the difference between the pious and the profane !" " Death 
is the common lot of all; o/good men and o/bad." 

The repetition of articles and prepositions is proper, 
when we intend to point out the objects of which we speak, 
as distinguished from each other, or in contrast; and when 
we wish that the reader's attention should rest on that 
distinction : as, "Our sight is at once the most delightful, 
and the most useful of all our senses." 

3. In the same sentence, be careful not to use the same 
word too frequently, nor in different senses, " One may 
have an air which proceeds from a just sufficiency and 
knowledge of the matter before him, which may naturally 
produce some motions of his head and body, which might 
become the bench better than the bar." 



Propriety.] perspicuity, &c. 253 

The pronoun which is here thrice used, in such a man- 
ner as to throw obsurity over the sentence. 

w Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other rea- 
son than this, that the manager, in countenance, favoured 
his friend." It should have been, " resembled his friend." 

" Charity expands our hearts in love to God and man : 
it isff£ the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and 
the poor supplied. In this sentence, the word " charity" 
is improperly used in two different senses ; for the highest 
benevolence, and for almsgiving. 

4. Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. To in- 
form those who do not understand sea-phrases, that " We 
tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea," would be ex- 
pressing ourselves very obscurely. Technical phrases not 
being in current use, but only the peculiar dialect of a par- 
ticular class, we should never use them but when we know 
they will be understood. 

5. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The following 
sentences are exceptionable in this respect. " As for such 
animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to de- 
stroy them." " I long since learned to like nothing but 
what you do." " He aimed at nothing less than the crown/'* 
may denote either, " Nothing was less aimed at by him 
than the crown," or " Nothing inferior to the crown could 
satisfy his ambition." " I will have mercy , and not sacrifice." 
The first part of this sentence denotes, " I will exercise 
mercy ;" whereas it is in this place employed to signify, 
" I require others to exercise it." The translation should 
therefore have been accommodated to these different 
meanings. " They- were both much more ancient among 
the Persions, than Zoroaster or Zerdusht." The or in 
this sentence is equivocal. It serves either as a copula- 
tive to synonymous words, or as a disjunctive of different 
things. If, therefore, the student should not know that 
Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same person, he will 
mistake the sense. " The rising tomb a lofty column 
bore;" "And thus the son the fervent sire address'd." Did 
the tomb bear the column, or the column, the tomb? Did 
the son address the sire, or the sire the son ? 

6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. 
il l have observed," says Steele, "that the superiority 

Y 



254 appendix. [Propriety. 

among these coffee-house politicians, proceeds from an 
opinion of gallantry and fashion." This sentence, consid- 
ered in itself, evidently conveys no meaning. First, it is not 
said whose opinion, their own, or that of others : Second- 
ly, it is not said what opinion, or of what sort, favourable or 
unfavourable, true or false, but in general, " an opinion of 
gallantry and fashion, 3 " which contains no definite efffres- 
ionof any meaning. With the joint assistance of the con- 
text, reflection, and conjecture, we shall perhaps conclude 
that the author intended to say ; "That the rank among 
these politicians was determined by the opinion generally 
entertained of the rank, in point of gallantry and fashion? 
that each of them had attained." 

4< This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of hu- 
mility, " keeps our understanding tight about us." Wheth- 
er the author had any meaning in this expression, or what 
it was, is not easy to determine. 

Sometimes a writer runs on in a specious verbosity, 
amusing his reader with synonymous terms and indentical 
propositions, well-turned periods, and high sounding words: 
but at the same time, using those words so indefinitely, 
that the reader can either affix no meaning at all to them s 
or may affix to them almost any meaning he pleases. 

" If it is asked," says a late writer, " whence arises the 
harmony, or beauty of language ? what are the rules for 
obtaining it ? the answer is obvious. Whatever renders a 
period sweet and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A good 
ear is the gift of nature ; it may be much improved, but 
not acquired by art. Whoever is possessed of it, will scarce- 
ly need dry critical precepts to enable him to judge of a 
true rhythmus, and melody of composition. Just numbers, 
accurate proportions, a musical symphony, magnificient 
figures, and that decorum which is the result of all these, 
are unison to the human mind." 

The following is a poetical example of the same nature, 
in which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it 
was composed by an eminent poet. 

From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 

This universal frame began: 

From harmony to harmony 
Through all the compass of the notes it ran. 
The diapason closing full in man, 



Propriety.] perspicuity, &c. 255 

In general, it may be said, that in writings of this stamp, 
we must accept of sound instead of sense ; being assured, 
that if we meet with little that can inform the judgment, 
we shall at least find nothing that will offend the ear. And 
perhaps this is one reason that we pass over such smooth 
language, without suspecting that it contains little or no 
meaning. In order to write or speak clearly and intelli- 
gibly, two things are especially requisite : one, that we 
have clear and distinct Ideas of our subject; and the other, 
that our words be approved signs of those ideas. That 
persons who think confusedly, should express themselves 
obscurely, is not to be wondered at; for embarrassed, 
obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, 
the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought ; 
but that persons of judgment, who are accustomed to 
scrutinize their ideas, and the signification of their words, 
should sometimes write without any meaning, is, at first 
sight, matter of admiration. This, however, when fur- 
ther considered, appears to be an effect derived from the 
same cause, indistinctness of conception, and inattention 
to the exact import of words. The occasions on which 
we are most apt to speak and write in this unintelligible 
manner, are the three following. 

The jirst is, where there is an exuberance of metaphor. 
Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are gene- 
rally disposed to continue it too long, and to pursue it too 
far. 

They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on 
the several proprieties of a metaphor which they have 
ushered into the discourse, without taking the trouble to 
examine whether there are any qualities in the subject, 
to which these properties can, with justice and perspicuity, 
be applied. The following instance of this sort of wri- 
ting is from an author of considerable eminence. "Men 
must acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning 
their view inward, in order to explore their interior regions 
and recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep 
thought, the private seats of fancy, and the wastes and 
wildernesses, as well as the more fruitful and cultivated 
tracts of this obscure climate. " A most wonderful way 
of telling us, that it is difficult to trace the operations of 
the mind. The author having determined to represent 



256 appendix. [Propriety* 

the human mind under the metaphor of a country, revolv- 
ed in his thoughts the various objects which might be found 
in a country, without considering whether there are any 
things in the mind properly analogous to these. Hence 
the strange parade he makes with 7*egions and 7'eceses, 
hollow caverns and firivate seats, wastes and wildernesses , 
fruitful and cultivated tracts ; words which, though they 
have a precise meaning-, as applied to country, have no 
definite signification, as applied to mind. 

The second occasion of our heing apt to write unintelli- 
gibly, is that wherein the terms most frequently occurring, 
denote things which are of a complicated nature, and to 
which the mind is not sufficiently familiarised. Of these 
the instances are numberless in every tongue ; such as, 
Government, church, state, constitution, power, legisla- 
ture, jurisdiction, &c. 

The third and principal occasion of unintelligible 
writing, is, when the terms employed are very abstract, 
and consequently of very extensive signification. Thus 
the word lion is more distinctly apprehended by the mind 
than the word beast, beast than animal, animal than being. 

The 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our 
words and phrases, is, to avoid all those which arenotadafit* 
ed to the ideas we mean to communicate ; or which are less 
significant than others, of those ideas, " He feels any sor- 
row that can arrive at man;" better <c hafifien to man." 
" The conscience of approving one's self a benefactor, is 
the best recompense for being so ;" it should have been 
" consciousness ." < 4 He firmly believed the divine firecefit, 
i There is not a sparrow falls to the ground,'" &c. It 
should have been " doctrine." 

* c It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters." A 
scene cannot be sakl to enter i an actor enters ; but a scene 
appears or presents itself 

^ We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, 
without inquiring into the causes of it:" it is proper to 
say, that we assent to the truth of a proposition ; but it 
cannot so well be said, that we assent to the beauty of an 
object. Acknowledge would have expressed the sense with 
propriety. 

" The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion 
of extension, shape , and all other 'ideas .that enter at the 



Precision.] perspicuity, &c. 257 

eye, except colours." Extention and shajie can, with no 
propriety, be called ideas ; they are properties of matter. 
Neither is it accurate, to speak of any sense giving us a 
notion of ideas : our senses give us the ideas themselves. 
The meaning of the sentence would have been proper, 
and much clearer, if the author had expressed himself 
thus: " The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us the idea 
of extension, figure, and all the other properties of mat- 
ter, which are preceived by the eye, except colours." 

" The covetous man Rever has a sufficiency ; although 
he has what is enough for nature," is much inferior to, 
u The covetous man never has enough; although he has 
what is sufficient for nature." 

" A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees; 
a general remarks all the motions of his enemy ;" better 
thus ; " A traveller remarks ," &c. ; u A general observes" 
&c. k< This measure enlarged his school, and obliged him 
to increase the buildings ;" it should be, a increased his 
school;" and u enlarge the buildings." 

" He applied a medicine before the poison had time to 
work :" better thus : u He applied an antidote" &c. 

" The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws 
out its bad qualities, on all who are within its reach ;" 
better, " throws out its malignant qualities." 

" I will go except I should be ill ;" " I saw them all un- 
less two or three :" corrected thus : " unless I should be 
ill ;" " except two or three." 

A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly 
expressive of the ideas we design to communicate; or 
which are as particular and determinate in their significa- 
tion, as is consistent with the nature and the scope of the 
discourse ; possesses great beauty, and cannot fail to pro- 
duce a good effect. 

CHAPTER III. 

OF PRECISION. 

Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with re- 
spect to words and phrases. It signifies retrenching su- 
perfluities, and pruning the expression, so as to exhibit nei- 
ther more nor less than an exact copy of the person's idea 
who uses it. 

Y2 



258 appendix. [Precision* 

The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three 
respects. 1st, They may not express the idea which the 
author intends, but some other which only resembles it ; 
secondly, They may express that idea, but not fully and 
completely ; thirdly, They may express it, together with 
something more than is intended. Precision stands op- 
posed to these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Pro- 
priety implies a freedom from the two former faults. The 
words which are used may be proper ; that is, they may 
express the idea intended, and they may express it fully ; 
but to be precise, signifies that they express that idea and 
no more. 

The use and importance of precision may be deduced 
from the nature of the human mind. It never can view, 
clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a time. If 
it must look at two or three together, especially objects 
that have resemblance or connexion, it .finds itself con- 
fused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly preceive in 
what they agree, and in what they differ. Thus, were 
any object, suppose some animal, to be presented to my 
view, of whose structure I wished to form a distinct no- 
tion, I should desire all its trappings to be taken off; I 
should require it to be brought before me by itself, and 
to stand alone, that their might be nothing to divide my 
attention. The same is the case with words. If, when 
any one would inform me of his meaning, he also tells 
me more than what conveys it; if he joins foreign cir- 
cumstances to the principal objects ; if, by unnecessarily 
varying the expression, he shifts the point of view, and 
makes me see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes 
another thing that is connected with it, he thereby obliges 
me to look on several objects at once, and I lose sight of 
the principal. He loads the animal he is showing me, 
with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinct- 
ly view it ; or he brings so many of the same species be- 
fore me, somewhat resembling, and yet somewhat differ- 
ing, that I see none of them clearly. When an author 
tells me of his hero's courage in the day of battle, the 
expression is precise, and I understand it fully : but if, 
from the desire of multiplying words, he should praise 
his courage and fortitude; at the moment he joins these 
words together, my idea begins to waver. He means to 



Precision/) perspicuity, &c. 259 

express one quality more strongly, but he is in truth ex- 
pressing two: courage resists danger; fortitude supports 
pain. The occasion of exerting each of these qualities 
is different ; and being led to think of both together, 
when only one of them should be considered, my view is 
rendered unsteady, and my conception of the object in- 
distinct. 

All subjects do not equally require precision. It is suf- 
ficient, on many occasions, that we have a general view 
of the meaning. The subject, perhaps, is of the known 
and familiar kind, and we are in no hazard of mistaking 
the sense of the author, though every word which he uses 
is not precise and exact. 

Many authors offend against this rule of precision. A 
considerable one, in describing a bad action, expresses him- 
self thus : " It is to remove a good and orderly affection, 
and to introduce an ill or disorderly one ; to commit an ac- 
tion that is ill, immoral, and unjust ; to do ill, or to act in 
prejudice of integrity, good nature, and worth. " 

A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is brought to- 
gether by some authors, who, afraid of expressing them- 
selves in a common and ordinary manner, and allured by 
an appearance of splendour, surround every thing which 
they mean to say with a certain copious loquacity. 

The great source of loose style in opposition to pre- 
cision, is the injudicious use of the word termed synony- 
mous. They are called synonymous, because they agree 
in expressing one principal idea ; but for the most part, 
if not always, they express it with some diversity in the cir- 
cumstances. 

The following instances show a difference in the mean- 
ing of words reputed synonymous, and point out the use of 
attending, with care and strictness, fo the exact import of 
words. | 

Custom, kabit. — Custom, respects the action; habit, the 
actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the 
same act; by habit, the effect which that repetition pro- 
duces on the mind or body. By the custom of walking 
often in the streets, one acquires a habit of idleness. 

Pride , vanity. — Pride make us esteem ourselves ; va- 
nity makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to 
say, that a man is too proud to be vain. 



260 appendix. [Precision, 

Haughtiness, disdain, — Haughtiness is founded on the 
high opinion we entertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low 
opinion we have of others. 

Only, alone. — -Only, imports that their is no other of the 
same kind ; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. 
An only child, is one that has neither brother nor sister ; 
a child alone, is one who is left by itself. There is a dif- 
ference, therefore, in precise language, between these two 
phrases: " Virtue only makes us happy;" and " Virtue 
alone makes us happy." 

Wisdom, prudences— Wisdom leads us to speak and act 
what is most proper. Prudence, prevents our speaking 
or acting improperly. 

Entire, complete. — A thing is entire, by wanting none of 
its parts complete, by wanting none of the appendages 
that belong to it. A man may have an entire house to him- 
self, and yet not have one complete apartment. 

Surprised, astonished^ amazed, confounded. — I am sur- 
prised with what is new or unexpected; I am astonished 
at what is vast or great ; I am amazed at what is incom- 
prehensible ; I am confounded by what is shocking or ter- 
rible. 

Tranquillity , peace, calm. — Tranquillity, respects a si- 
tuation free from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the 
same situation with respect to any causes that might in- 
terrupt it; calm, with regard to a disturbed situation 
going before or following it. A good man enjoys tran- 
quillity, in himself; peace, with. others; and calm, after 
the storm. 

These are some of the numerous instances of words, 
in our language, whose significations approach, but are 
not precisely the same. The more the distinction in the 
meaning of such words is attended to, the more clearly 
and forcibly shall we s$eak or write. It may not, on all 
occasions, be necessary to pay a great deal of attention to 
very nice distinctions; yet the foregoing instances show the 
utility of some general care to understand the distinct im- 
port of our words. 

While we are attending to precision, we must be on 
our guard, lest, from the desire of pruning too closely, 
we retrench all copiousness. Scarcely in any language 
are there two words that convey precisely the same idea ; 



Precision.] perspicuity, &c. 261 

a person thoroughly conversant in the propriety of the 
language, will always be able to observe something that 
distinguishes them. As they are like different shades of 
the same colour, an accurate writer can employ them to 
great advantage, by using them so as to heighten and 
complete the object which he presents to us. He sup* 
plies by one what was wanting in the other, to the strength, 
or to the finishing, of the image which he means to ex- 
hibit. But for this purpose, he must be attentive to the 
choice of his words, and not employ them carelessly, 
merely for the sake of filling up a period, or of rounding 
or diversifying his language, as if their signification were 
exactly the same, while in truth it is not. To unite co- 
piousness and precision, to be full and easy, and at the 
same time correct and exact in the choice of every word, 
is no doubt one of the highest and most difficult attain- 
ments in writing. 

PART II. 

OF PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY OF EXPRESSION, WITH RE- 
SPECT TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, 
nor very short : long ones require close attention to make 
us clearly perceive the connexion of the several parts; 
and short ones are apt to break the sense, and weaken 
the connexion of thought. % Yet occasionally they may 
both be used with force and propriety ; as may be seen in 
the following sentences. * 

M If you look about you^id consider the lives of others 
as well as your own ; if JHi think how few are born with 
honour, and how many Jie without name or children; 
how little beauty we see, and how few friends we hear 
of; how much poverty, and how many diseases there are 
in the world ; you will fall down upon your knees, and 
instead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many 
blessings which you have received from the Divine hand/' 
This is a sentence composed of several members linked 
together, and hanging upon one another, so that the sense 
of the whole is not brought out till the close. The 
following is an example of one in which the sense 
is formed into short, independent propositions, each com- 



262 appendix. [Clearness. 

plete within itself. i{ I confess, it was want of considera- 
tion that made me an author. I wrote because it amused 
me. I corrected, because it was as pleasant to me to 
correct as to write. I published, because I was told I 
might please such as it was a credit to please." 

A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, 
aud with the same number of members, should never be 
allowed to succeed one another. A long succession of 
either long or short sentences should also be avoided ; for 
the ear tires of either of them when too long continued. 

Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods, 
and of periods variously constructed, not only the ear is 
gratified; but animation and force are given to our style. 

We now proceed to consider the things most essential to 
an accurate and a perfect sentence. They appear to be 
the four following : 1. clearness. 2. unity. 3. strength. 

4. A JUDICIOUS USE OF THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
CHAPTER I. 

OF THE CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE, 

Purity, propriety, and precision, in words and phrases 
separately considered, have already been explained, and 
shown to be necessary to perspicuous and accurate wri- 
ting. The just relation of sentences, and the parts of sen- 
tences, to one another, and the due arrangement of the 
whole, are the subjects whickremain to be discussed. 

The first requisite of a pejfect sentence is clearness. 

Whatever leaves the mind Stany sort of suspense as to 
the meaning, ought to be avoidKl, Obscurity arises from 
two causes ; either from a wrojg choice of words, or a 
wrong arrangement of them, ^pe choice of words and 
phrases, as far as regards perspicuity, has been already 
considered. The disposition of them comes now under 
consideration. 

The first thing to be studied here, is grammatical pro- 
priety. But as the grammar of our language is compara- 
tively not extensive, there maybe an obscure order of words, 
where there is no transgression of any grammatical rule. 
The relations of words, or members of a period, are with 
us, ascertained only by the position in which they stand. 

Jrlence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences 



Clearness.] perspicuity, &c. 263 

is, that the words or members, most clearly related should 
be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possi- 
ble, so as to make their mutual relation clearly appear, 
It will be proper to produce- some instances, in order to 
show the importance of this rule. 

1 . In the position of adverbs, « The Romans understood 
liberty, at least, as well as we." These words are capable 
of two different senses, according as the emphasis, in read- 
ing them, is laid upon liberty, or upon at least. The words 
should have been thus arranged: M The Romans under- 
stood liberty as well, at least, as we." 

44 Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or athe- 
ism." Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else 
besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism? This is 
what the words literally import, through the wrong placing 
of the adverb only. It should have been, " Theism can 
be opposed only to polytheism or atheism.' 5 

44 By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such 
pleasures as arise originally from sight." When it is said- 
44 1 mean only such pleasures ," it may be remarked, that the 
adverb only is not properly placed. It is not intended here 
to qualify the word mean, but such pleasures ; and therefore 
should have been placed in as close connexion as possible 
with the word which it limits or qualifies. The style be- 
comes more clear and neat when the words are arranged 
thus: 44 By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean such 
pleasures only as arise from sight/ * 

In the following sentence, the word more is not in its 
proper place. i4 There is not, perhaps, any real beauty or 
deformity more in one piece of matter than another." The 
phrase ought to have stood thus: 44 Beauty or deformity 
in one piece of matter more than in another." 

2. In the position of circumstances, and of particular 
members, 

An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses 
himself: <4 Are these designs which any man, who is born 
a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to 
be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Here we are left at a loss 
whether these words, 44 in any circumstances, in any situa- 
tion," are connected with 4< a man born in Britain, in any 
circumstances or situation," or with that man's 44 avowing 
his designs in any circumstances or situation into which he 



264 Appendix, [Clearness, 

may be brought/ 5 As it is probable that the latter was 
.intended, the arrangement ought to have been conducted 
thus: " Are these designs which any man, who is born a 
Briton, ought to be ashamed' or afraid, in any situation, in 
any circumstances, to avow*?" 

The following is another instance of a wrong arrange - 
ment of circumstances. "A great stone that I happened 
to find, after a long search, by the sea shore, served me 
for an anchor." One would think that the search was con- 
fined to the sea shore : but as the meaning is, that the 
great stone was found by the sea shore, the period ought 
to have run thus: U A great stone, that, after a long 
search, I happened to find by the sea shore, served me for 
an anchor." 

It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances 
together, but rather to intersperse them in different parts 
of the sentence, joined with the principal words on which 
they depend. For instance: u What I had the opportu- 
nity of mentioning to my friend sometime ago, in conver- 
sation, was not a new thought." These two circumstan- 
ces, " sometime ago" and " in conversation" which are 
here put together, would have had better effect disjoin- 
ed, thus: u What I had the opportunity, sometime ago, 
of mentioning to my friend in conversation, was not a new 
thought." 

Here follows an example of the wrong arrangement of 
a member of a sentence. a The minister of state who 
grows less by his elevation, like a little statue placed on a 
mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about 
him." Here, so far as can be gathered from the arrange- 
ment, it is doubtful whether the object introduced, by 
way of simile, relates to what goes before, or to what fol- 
lows. The ambiguity is removed by the following order. 
" The minister of state who, like a little statue placed 
on a mighty pedestal, grows less by his elevation, will 
always," &c. 

Words expressing things connected in the thought, 
ought to be placed as near together as possible, even 
when their separation would convey no ambiguity. This 
will be seeir in the following passages from Addison. 
"For the English are naturally fanciful, and very often 
disposed by that gloominess and melancholy of temper 



Clearness.] appendix. 265 

which are so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions 
and extravagancies, to which others are not so liable." 
Here the verb or assertion is, by a pretty long circum- 
stance, separated from the subject to which it refers. 
This might have been easily prevented, by placing the cir- 
cumstance before the verb," thus: "For the English are 
naturally fanciful, and by that gloominess and melancholy 
of temper which are so frequent in our nation, are often 
disposed to many wild notions," 8cc. 

" Eor as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicis- 
situde of things, knows to what use his works may, some 
time or other, be applied," &c. Better thus: 4 < For as, in 
the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal au- 
thor knows to what use, some time or other, his works 
may be applied," 8cc. 

From these examples, the following observations will 
occur : that a circumstance ought never to be placed be- 
tween two capital members of a period ; but either be- 
tween the parts of the member to which it belongs, or in 
such a manner as will confine it to its proper member. 
When the sense admits it, the sooner a circumstance is 
introduced, generally speaking, the better, that the more 
important and significant words may possess the last place, 
quite disencumbered. The following sentence is, in this 
respect, faulty. " The Emperor was so intent on the es- 
tablishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that he ex- 
posed the empire doubly to desolation and ruin for the 
sake of it." Better thus : " That for the sake of it, he ex- 
posed the empire doubly to desolation and ruin." 

This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when 
different things have an obvious relation to each other, in 
respect to the order of nature or time, 1 that order should be 
regarded, in assigning them their places in the sentence ; 
unless the scope of the passages require it to be varied. 
The conclusion of the following lines is inaccurate in this 
respect : "But still there will be such a mixture of delight, 
as is proportioned to the degree in which any one of these 
qualifications is most conspicuous and prevailing." The 
order in which the two last words are placed, should have 
been reversed, and made 'to stand, prevailing and conspic- 
uous. — They are conspicuous, because they prevail. 
The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict 

Z 



266 appendix. [Clearness* 

conformity to this rule. " Our sight fills the mind with 
the largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects at 
the greatest distance, and continues the longest in action, 
without being tired or satiated with its proper enjoyments." 
This passage follows the order of nature. First, we have 
the variety of objects mentioned, which sight furnishes to 
the mind ; next, we have the action of sight on those ob- 
jects ; and lastly, we have the time and continuance of its 
action. No order could be more natural or exact. 

The order which we now recommend, is, in single words 
especially, frequently violated for the sake of better sound ; 
but, perhaps in no instances, without a deviation from the 
line of strict propriety. 

3. In khe disposition of the relative pronouns, who, which? 
what, whose, and of all those particles which express the 
connexion of the parts of speech with one another. 

A small error in the position of these words may cloud 
the meaning of the whole sentence; and even where the 
meaning is intelligible, we always find something awkward 
and disjointed in the structure of the sentence, when these 
relatives are out of their proper place. " This kind of wit," 
says an author, a was very much in vogue among our 
countrymen, about an age or two ago: who did not practise 
it for any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being 
witty." We are at no loss about the meaning here; but 
the construction would evidently be mended by disposing 
the circumstance, " about an age or two ago," in such a 
manner as not to separate the relative who from its ante- 
cedent our countrymen ; in this way : a About an age or 
two ago, this kind of wit was very much in vog&e among 
our countrymen, who did not practise it," &x. 

The following passage is still more censurable. " It 
is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents 
of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect 
us against, but the good providence of our Creator." 
Which always refers grammatically to the substantive im- 
mediately preceding ; and that, in the instance just men- 
tioned, is " treasures." The sentence ought to have stood 
thus : (6 It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to 
arm ourselves against the accidents of life, which nothing 
can protect us against," Sec. 

With regard to relatives, it may be further observed 



Unity.] perspicuity, &c 267 

that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition 
of them, particularly of the pronouns who and they, and 
them and theirs, when we have occasion to refer to dif- 
ferent persons; as in the following sentence of Tillotson, 
Ci Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, 
and think that their reputation obscures them, and their 
commendable qualities stand in their light; and therefore 
they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the 
bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them." 
This is altogether careless writing. When we find these 
personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have 
often no method left, but to throw the whole sentence into 
some other form, which may avoid those frequent referen- 
ces to persons who have before been mentioned. 

To have the relation of every word and member of a 
sentence marked in the most proper and distinct manner, 
not only gives clearness to it, but makes the mind pass 
smoothly and agreeably along all the parts of it. — See the 
Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF THE UNITY OF A SENTENCE. 

The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity, 

In every composition, there is always some connecting 
principle among the parts. Some one object must reign 
and be predominant. But most of all, in a single sentence, 
is required the strictest unity. For the very nature of a 
sentence implies that one proposition is expressed. It may 
consist of parts, indeed, but these parts must be so closely 
bound together, as to make the impression upon the mind 
of one object, not of many. To preserve this unity of a 
sentence, the following rules must be observed. 

In the first place, During the course of the sentence, the 
scene should bt changed as little as fiossible. We should 
not be hurried by sudden transitions from persou to person, 
nor from subject to subject. There is commonly, in every 
sentence,^ some person or thing which is the governing 
word. This should be continued so, if possible, from the 
beginning to the end of it. 

The following sentence varies from this rule : " x\fter 
we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was 



268 appendix, [Unity, 

welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the 
greatness kindness." In this sentence, though the objects 
contained in it have a sufficient connexion with each other, 
yet, by this manner of representing them, by shifting so 
often both the place and the person, we and they, and / 
and who, they appear in so disunited a view, that the sense 
of connexion is much impaired. The sentence is restored 
to its proper unity, by turning it after the following man- 
ner, « Having come to an anchor, I was put on" shore, 
where I was welcomed by all my friends, and received 
with the greatest kindness." 

Here follows another instance of departure from the 
rule. u The sultan being dangerously wounded,, they ear- 
ned him to his tent ; and, upon hearing of the defeat of 
his troops, they put him into a litter, which transported 
him to a place of safety, at the distance of about fifteen 
leagues." Better thus: < s The sultan being dangerously 
wounded, was carried to his tent ; and, on hearing of the 
defeat of his troops, was put into a litter, and transported 
to a "place of safety about fifteen leagues distant " 

A second rule under the head of unity, is, Never to crowd 
into one sentence, things which have so little connexion, that 
they could bear to be divided into two or three sentences. 

The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and 
obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short senten- 
ces,, than by one that is overloaded and embarrassed, 
Examples abound in authors. tC Archbishop Tiliotson," 
says an author, " died In this year. He was exceedingly 
beloved by king William and queen Mary, who nomina- 
ted Dr. Tennison, bishop - of Lincoln, to succeed him." 
Who would expect the latter part of this sentence to fol- 
low in consequence of the former? <£ He was exceeding- 
ly beioved by both king and queen, 5 ' is the proposition of 
the sentence. We look for some proof of this, or at least 
something related to it to follow; when we are on a sud- 
den carried off to a new proposition. 

The following sentence is still worse. The author, 
speaking of the Greeks under Alexander, says: " Their 
inarch was through an uncultivated country, whose sa- 
vage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than 
a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, 
by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish." Here 



Unity.] perspicuity, &c. 269 

the scene is changed upon us again and again. The march 
of the Greeks, the description of the inhabitants through 
whose country they travelled, the account of their sheep 2 
and the cause of their sheep being ill-tasted food, form a 
jumble of objects, slightly related to each other, which 
the reader cannot, without much difficulty, comprehend 
under one view. 

These examples have been taken from sentences of no 
great length, yet very crowded. Writers who deal in long 
sentences, are very apt to be faulty in this article. Take, 
for an instance, the following from Temple. " The usual 
acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different 
things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them 
by the several names of busy and idle men ; but distin- 
guishes the faculties of the mind, that are conversant 
about them, calling the operations of the first, Wisdom ; 
and of the other, Wit ; which is a Saxon word, used to 
express what the Spaniards and Italians call Ingenio, and 
the French Esfirit^ both from the Latin, though I think 
wit more particularly signifies that of poetry, as may oc- 
cur in remarks on the Runic language. 5 ' When the read- 
er arrives at the end of this perplexed sentence, he is sur- 
prised to find himself at so great distance from the object 
with which he set out. 

Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great ble- 
mishes in composition. In writers of considerable cor- 
rectness, we find a period sometimes running out so far, 
and comprehending so many particulars, as to be more 
properly a discourse than a sentence. An author, speak- 
ing of the progress of our language after the time of 
Cromwell, runs on in this manner ; "To this succeeded 
that licentiousness which entered with the restoration, 
and, from infecting our religion and morals, fell to cor- 
rupt our language ; which last was not like to be much 
improved by those who at that time made up the court 
of king Charles the Second ; either such as had followed 
him in his banishment, or who had been altogether con- 
versant in the dialect of these times, or young men who 
had beea educated in the same country: so that the court, 
which used to be the standard of correctness and proprie- 
ty of speech, was then, and I think liars ever since con- 
tinued, the Worst school in England for that accomplish- 

Z2 



270 Appendix. [Unity, 

me'nt ; and so will remain, till better care be taken in the 
education of our nobility, that they may set out into the 
world with some foundation of literature, in order to quali- 
fy them for patterns of politeness." 

The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a 
loose dissertation upon several subjects. How many dif- 
ferent facts, reasonings, and observations, are here pre- 
sented to the mind at once ! and yet so linked together 
by the author, that they all make parts of a sentence, 
which admits of no greater division in pointing than a co» 
Ion, between any of its members. 

It may be of use here to give a specimen of a long 
sentence, broken down into several periods ; by which we 
shall more clearly perceive the disad vantages of long 
sentences, and how easily they may be amended. Here 
follows the sentence in its original form: " Though in 
yesterday's paper we showed how every thing that is 
great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination 
with pleasure, we must own, that it is impossible for us 
to assign the necessary cause of this pleasure, because 
we know neither the nature of an idea, nor the substance 
of a human soul : and therefore, for want of such a iignt, 
all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is, to re- 
Sect on those operations of the soul that ate most agree- 
able ; and to range, under their proper heads, what is plea- 
ding or displeasing to the mind, without being abletotra^e 
out the several necessary and efficient causes, from whence 
the pleasure or displeasure arises." 

The following amendment, besides breaking down the 
period into several sentences, exhibits some other useful 
alterations: "In yesterday's paper, we showed that every 
thing which is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect 
the imagination with pleasure. We must own, that it is 
impossible for us to assign the efficient cause of this plea- 
sure, because we know not the nature either of an idea,, 
or of the human soul. All that we can do, therefore, in 
speculations of this kind, is to reflect on the operations 
of the soul which are most agreeable, and to range un- 
der proper heads what is pleasing or displeasing to the 
mind." 

A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences, is ? t® 
keep, clear of all unnecessary parentheses , 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 27i 

On some occasions, when the sense is not too long sus- 
pended by them, and when they are introduced in a pro- 
per place, they may add both to the vivacity and to the 
energy of the sentence. But for the most part their effect 
is extremely bad. They are wheels within wheels; sen- 
tences in the midst of sentences; the perplexed method 
of disposing of some thought, which a writer wants judg- 
ment to introduce in its proper place. 

The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper 
H And was the ransom paid ? It was; and paid 
" (What can exalt the bounty more?) for thee." 
But in the following sentence, we become sensible of an 
impropriety in the use of it. " If your hearts secretly 
reproach you for the wrong choice you have made, (as 
there is time for repentance and retreat; and a return to 
wisdom is always honourable,) bethink yourselves that the 
evil is not irreparable/' It would be much better to ex- 
press in a separate sentence, the thoughts contained in 
this parenthesis; thus: " If your hearts secretly reproach 
you for the wrong choice you have made, bethink your- 
selves that the evil is not irreparable. Still there is time 
for repentance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is 
always honourable." — See the Appendix to the Exercises, 

CHAPTER III. 

OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. 

The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is, Strength* 

By this is meant such a disposition and management of 
the several words and members, as shall bring out the 
sense to the best advantage, and give every word and 
every member, its due weight and force. 

A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in all 
its parts, or have the requisite unity, and yet, by some cir- 
cumstance in the structure, it may fail in that strength of 
impression, which a better management would have pro- 
duced. - r 

The^r^ rule for promoting the strength ot a sentence^, 
is to prune it of all redundant words and members. 

'it is a general maxim, that any words which do not add 
some importance to the meaning of a sentence, always 



272 appendix. [Strength. 

injure it. Care should therefore be exercised with respect 
to synonymous words, expletives, circumlocutions, tauto- 
logies, and the expressions of unnecessary circumstances. 
The attention becomes remiss, when words are multiplied 
without a correspondent multiplication oi ideas. "Con- 
tent with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour of 
it;" is better language than to say, "Being content with 
deserving it," 8cc. 

" In the Attic commonwealth," says an author, " it 
was the privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet, 
to rail aloud and in public." Better simply thus: " In 
the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege of every 
citizen to rail in public." 

Another expresses himself thus: "They returned back 
again to the same city from whence they came forth;" in 
stead of, " They returned to the city whence they came." 
The five words, back, again, same, from, and forth, are 
mere expletives, that have neither use nor beauty, and 
are therefore to be regarded as encumbrances. 

The word but is often improperly used with that, as, 
" There can be no doubt but that he seriously means what 
he says." It is not only useless, but cumbersome: " There 
can be no doubt that he seriously means what he says. 35 
By transposing the parts of the sentence, we shall im- 
mediately perceive the propriety of omitting this word: 
" That he seriously means what he says, there can be 
no doubt." 

" I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, 
that nothing can possibly be more incurably and empha- 
tically destructive, or more decisively fatal, to a kingdom, 
than the introduction of thoughtless dissipation, and the 
pomp of lazy luxury." Would not the full import of this 
noisy sentence be better expressed thus: " I am of opin- 
ion, that nothing is more ruinous to a kingdom, than lux- 
ury and dissipation," 

Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing 
their ideas. A considerable one, for so very simple a 
thing as a man's wounding himself, says, " To mangle, 
or wound, his outward form and constitution, his natural 
limbs or body*" 

But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a peculiar 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 273 

force; as in the following sentence: u Shall not the Judge 
of all the earth do right ?" 

In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tauto* 
logy appear. 

" So it is, that I must be forced to get home, partly by 
stealth, and partly by force*" 

" Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the uni- 
versal love and esteem of all men." 

The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary 
circumstances. " On receiving this information, he arose, 
went out, saddled his horse, mounted him, and rode to 
town." All is implied in saying, <c On receiving this infor- 
mation, he rode to town." 

This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strong- 
ly characteristic of the simple style of remote ages, that f 
in books of the highest antiquity, particularly the Bible 
it is not at all ungraceful. Of this kind are the following 
scriptural phrases. u He lifted up his voice, and wept." 
u He opened his mouth, and said." It is true, that, in 
strictness, they are not necessary to the narration, but 
they are of some importance to the composition, as bear- 
ing the venerable signature of ancient simplicity. It may 
on this occasion, be further observed, that the language 
of the present translation of the Bible, ought not to be 
viewed in an exceptionable light, though some parts of 
it may appear to be obsolete. From universal adraission 9 
this language has become so familiar and intelligible^ that 
in all transcripts and illusions, except where the sense 
is evidently injured, it ought to be carefully preserved. 
And it may also be justly remarked, that, on religious 
subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture language is 
attended with peculiar force and propriety. 

Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to con- 
tract a roundabout method of expression, and to lop off 
excrescences, yet we should avoid the extreme of pruning 
too closely: some leaves should be left to shelter and 
surround the fruit. Even synonymous expressions may, 
on some occasions, be used with propriety. One is, 
when an obscurer term, which we cannot well avoid em- 
ploying, needs to be explained by one that is clearer. 

The other is, when the language of the emotions is 
exhibited. Emotion naturally dwells on its object : and 



2?4 appendix. [Strength. 

when the reader also feels interested, repetition and sy- 
nonoymy have frequently an agreeable effect. 

The following passage, taken from Addison, who de- 
lighted in a full and flowing style, may, by some persons, 
be deemed not very exceptionable. " But there is no- 
thing that makes its way more directly to the soul than 
beauty, which immediately diffuses a secret satisfaction 
and complacency through the imagination, and gives a 
finishing to any thing that is great or uncommon. The 
very first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward joy, 
and spreads a cheerfulness and delight through all its 
faculties." Some degree, of verbosity may be discovered 
in these sentences, as phrases are repeated which seem 
little more than the echo of one another ; such as — dif- 
fusing satisfaction and complacency through the imagi- 
nation—striking the mind with inward joy—sfireading 
cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties. But, 
perhaps, some redundancy is more allowable on such 
lively subjects, than it would be on other occasions. 

After removing superfluities, the second rule for pro- 
moting the strength of a sentence, is, to attend particu- 
larly to the use of copulatives, relatives and all the parti* 
cles employed for translation and connexions. 

These little words, but, and, or , which, whose, where, 
then, therefore, because, &c. are frequently the most im- 
portant words of any ; they are the joints or hinges upon 
which all sentences turn; and, of course, much of their 
strength must depend upon such particles. The varieties 
in using them are, indeed, so many, that no particular 
system of rules respecting them can be given. Some 
observations, tending to illustrate the rule, may, however, 
be mentioned. 

What is called splitting particles, or separating a pre- 
position from the noun which it governs, is to be avoid- 
ed. As if I should say, " Though virtue borrows no 
assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the 
advantages of fortune." Here we are put to a stand in 
thought, being obliged to rest a little on the preposition 
by itself, which, at the same time carries no significancy, 
till it is joined to its proper substantive. 

Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and 
relative particles, by the frequent use of such phraseology 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 275 

as this: " There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than 
the empty pomp of language." In introducing a subject, 
or laying down a proposition, to which we demand parti- 
cular attention, this sort of style is very proper ; but on 
common occasions, it is better to express ourselves more 
simply and briefly : "Nothing disgusts us sooner than the 
empty pomp of language." 

Other wriiers make a practice of omitting the relative, 
where they think the meaning can be understood without 
it : as, " The man I love ;" " The dominions we pos- 
sessed, and the conquests we made." But though this 
elliptical style is intelligible, and is allowable in conver- 
sation and epistolary writing, yet in all writings of a se- 
rious and dignified kind, it ought to be avoided. There, 
the relative should always be inserted in its proper place, 
and the construction filled up: " The man whom I love." 
w The dominions which we possessed, and the conquests 
which we made." 

With regard to the copulative particle and, which oc- 
curs so frequently in all kinds of composition, several 
observations are to be made. First it is evident that 
the unnecessary repetition of it enfeebles style. The 
following sentence from Sir William Temple, will serve 
for an instance. He is speaking of the refinement of the 
French language: "The academy, set up by Cardinal 
Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, 
and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry., 
brought this into vogue; and the French wits have, for 
this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of 
their style and language ; and, indeed, with such success, 
that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally through 
their verse and their prose." Here are no fewer than 
eight ands in one sentence. Some writers often make 
their sentences drag in this manner, by a careless multi- 
plication of copulatives. 

But, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, 
that though the natural use of the conjunction and, is to 
join objects together, yet, in fact, by dropping the con- 
junction, we often mark a closer connexion, a quicker 
succession of objects, than when it is inserted between 
them, <{ I came, I saw, I conquered," expresses with 



2T6 appendix. [Strength* 

more force the rapidity and quick succession of conquest 
than if connecting particles had been used. 

On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick 
transition from one object to another, when we are making 
some enumeration, in which we wish that the objects 
should appear as distinct from each other as possible, and 
that the mind should rest, for a moment, on each object 
by itself, copulatives may be multiplied with peculiar ad- 
advantage. As when an author says, "Such a man might 
fall a victim to power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, 
would fall with him." Observe, in the following enume- 
ration made by the Apostle Paul, what additional weight 
and distinctness are given to each particular, by the re- 
petition of a conjunction: " I am persuaded that neither 
death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, 
nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us 
from the love of God." 

The words designed to mark the transition from one 
sentence to another, and the connexion between sen- 
tences, are sometimes very incorrect, and perform their 
office in an imperfect and obscure manner. The follow- 
ing is an example of this kind of inaccuracy. " By great- 
ness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, 
but the largeness of a whole view. Such are the prospects 
of an open champaign country, a vast uncultivated desert," 
Sec. The word such signifies of that nature or quality, 
which necessarily presupposes some adjective or word 
descriptive of a quality going before, to which it refers. 
But, in the foregoing sentence, there is no such adjec- 
tive. The author had spoken of greatness in the abstract 
only ; and, therefore, such has no distinct antecedent to 
which we can refer it. The sentence would have been 
introduced with more propriety, by saying, To this class 
belongs or under this head are ranged, the prospects, Sec. 

As connective particles are the hinges, tacks, and pins, 
by which the words in the same clause, the clauses in the 
same member, the members in the same sentence, and 
even the sentences in the same discourse, are united to- 
gether, and their relations suggested, so they should not 
be either too frequently repeated, awkwardly exposed to 
view, or made up of polysyllables, when shorter words 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. j 277 

would as well convey the meaning. Notwithstanding that, 
insomuch that, jorasmuch as f furthermore, Sec. are tedious 
words, which tend to overload and perplex a sentence. 

We shall conclude this head with two remarks on the 
subject of inserting or omitting the conjunctions. The first 
is, that the illative conjunctions, the casual, and the dis- 
junctive, when they suit the sense, can more rarely be 
dispensed with than the copulative. The second is, that 
the omission of copulatives always succeeds best, when 
the connexion of the thoughts is either very close, or very 
distant It is mostly in the intermediate cases Aat the 
conjunction is deemed necessary. When the connexion 
in thought is very distant, the copulative appears absurd ; 
and when very close, superfluous. 

The third rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, 
is, to dispose of the cafiital word, or words, so that they may 
make the greatest impression. 

That there are, in every sentence, such capital words on 
which the meaning principally rests, every one must see ; 
and that these words should possess a conspicuous and dis- 
tinguished place is equally plain. For the most part, with 
us, the important words are placed in the beginning of the 
sentence. So in the following passages : " Silver and gold 
have I none ; but such as I have, give I unto thee," Sec. 
" Your fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do 
they live for ever V 

Sometimes, however, when we intend to give weight 
to a sentence, it is of advantage to suspend the meaning 
for a little, and then bring it out full at the close. " Thus," 
says an author, " on whatever side we contemplate this 
ancient writer, what principally strikes us, is his wonder- 
ful invention." 

To accomplish this end, the placing of capital words in a 
conspicuous part of the sentence, the natural order of our 
language must sometimes be inverted. According to this 
natural order, the nominative has the first place? the verb 
the second, and the objective, if it be an active verb that 
is employed, has the third. Circumstances follow the nomi- 
native, the verb, or the objective, as they happen to be- 
long to any of them. " Diana of the Ephesians is great," 
is the natural order of the sentence. But its strength is 
increased by inversion, thus : " Great is Diana of the Ephe- 

A a 



278 appendix. [Strength* 

sians." " I profess, in the sincerity of my heart," &c. is 
the natural order of a circumstance. Inverted thus : " In 
the sincerity of my heart, I profess," &c. 

Some authors greatly invert the natural order of sen- 
tences ; others write mostly in a natural style. Each me- 
thod has its advantages. The inverted possesses strength, 
dignity, and variety: the other, more nature, ease, and 
simplicity. We shall give an instance of each method, 
taken from writers of considerable eminence. The first is 
of the inverted order. The author is speaking of the 
misery fcf vice. a This, as to the complete immoral state, 
is, what of their own accord, men readily remark. Where 
there is this absolute degeneracy, this total apostacy from 
all candour truth, or equity, there are few who do not 
see and acknowledge the misery which is consequent. 
Seldom is the case misconstrued when at worst. The 
misfortune is, that we look not on this depravity, not con- 
sider how r it stands in less degrees. As if, to be absolute- 
ly immoral, were, indeed, the greatest misery ; but to be 
so in a little degree, should be no misery or harm at all. 
Which, to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that it is 
the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner 
maimed or distorted ; but that to lose the use only of one 
limb, or to be impaired in some single organ or member, 
is no ill worthy the least notice." Here is no violence 
done to the language, though there are many inversions. 

The following is an example of natural construction : 
" Our sight is the most perfect, and the most delightful, of 
all our senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety of 
ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest distance, 
and continues the longest in action, without being tired, or 
satiated with its proper enjoyments. The sense of feeling 
can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and all 
other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours ; but, at 
the same time, it is very much straitened and confined in 
its operations." &c. 

But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever 
part of the sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is 
always a point of consequence, that these capital words 
should stand clear and disentangled from any other words 
that would clog them. Thus, when there are any circum- 
stances of time, place, or other limitations, which the prin- 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 279 

cipal object of our sentence requires to have connected 
with it, we must take care to dispose of them, so as not to 
cloud that principal object, nor to bury it under a load of 
circumstances. This will be made clearer by an exam- 
ple. " If, whilst they profess only to please, they secret- 
ly advise, and give instruction, they may now perhaps, as 
well as formerly, be esteemed, with justice, the best and 
most honourable among authors/ 5 This is a well con- 
structed sentence. It contains a great many circumstances 
and adverbs necessary to qualify the meaning ; only, secret- 
ly, as well, perhaps, now, with justice, formerly ; yet these 
are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor 
weaken the sentence ; while that which is the capital ob- 
ject in it, viz. " being justly esteemed the best and most 
honourable among authors," comes out in the conclusion 
clear and detached, and possesses its proper place. See 
now, what would have been the effect of a different ar- 
rangement : " If, whilst they profess to please only, they 
advise and give instruction secretly, they may be esteemed 
the best and mos* honourable among authors, with justice, 
perhaps, now as well as formerly/' Here we have pre- 
cisely the same words, and the same sense ; but by means 
of the circumstances being so intermingled as to clog the 
capital words, the whole becomes feeble and perplexed. 

The fourth rule, for promoting the strength of sen- 
tences, is, ihat a weaker assertion or proposition should ne- 
ver come afcr a stronger one ; and that, when our sentence 
consists of two members, the longer should, generally, be the 
concluding one. 

Thus, to say, " When our passions have forsaken us, 
we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken 
them,'* is both more easy and more clear, than to begin 
with the longer part of the proposition: -< We flatter our- 
selves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, 
when they have forsaken us." 

In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising up- 
on us, and growing in its importance, to the very last 
word, when this construction can be managed without af- 
fectation. < If we rise yet higher," says Addison, a and 
consider the fixed stars as so many oceans of flame, that 
are each of them attended with a different set of planets; 
and still discover new firmaments and new lights, that are 



£80 appenihx* [Strength. 

sunk further in those unfathomable depths of ether ; we 
are lost in such a labyrinth of suns ancl worlds, and con- 
founded with the magnificence and immensity of nature." 

The fifth rule for the strength of sentences is, to avoid 
concluding them with an adverb, a preposition, or any incon- 
siderable word. 

Agreeably to this rule, we should not conclude with 
any of the particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, 
it is a great deal better to say, iC Avarice is a crime of 
which wise men are often guilty," than to say, "Avarice 
is a crime which wise men are often guilty of" I his is 
a phraseology which all correct writers shun ; and with 
reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a little, on 
the import of the word which closes the sentence, it must 
be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word, whicn does 
not, by itself, produce any idea. 

For the same reason, -verbs which are used in a com- 
pound sense, with some of these prepositions, are though 
not so bad yet still not proper conclusions of a period: 
such as, bring about^ lay hold of com? over to, clear up, 
and many other of this kind; instead of which, if we can 
employ a simple verb, it always terminates the sentence 
with more strength. Even th pronoun it, should, if pos- 
sible, be avoided in the conclusion: especially when it 
is joined with some of the prepositions; as, with it, in it, 
to it. We shall be sensible of this in the following sen- 
tence. " There is not- in my opinion, a more pleasing 
and triumphant consideration in religion, than this, of the 
perpetual progress which the soul makes towards the per- 
fection of its nature, without ever arriving at a period 
in it" How much more agreeable the sentence, if it 
had been so .constructed as to close with the word period i 

Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which ex- 
presses a circumstance only, always appears badly in the 
rear of a sentence We may judge of this by the fol- 
lowing passage ; % } Let me therefore conclude by repeat- 
ing, that division has caused all the mischief we lament; 
that union alone can retrieve it ; and that a great advance 
towards this union, was the coalition of parties, so hap- 
pily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late so un- 
accountably neglected ; to say no worse. ' This last phrase, 
<* to say no worse/' occasions a felling off at the end, 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 28l 

The proper disposition of such circumstances in a sen- 
tence requires attention, in order to adjust them so as 
shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength 
of the period,— Though necessary parts, they are, how- 
ever, like irregular stones in a building, which try the 
skill of an artist, where to place them with the least 
offence. But it must be remembered, that the close is 
always an unsuitable place for them. Notwithstanding 
what has been said against concluding a period with an 
adverb, &c. this must not be understood to refer to such 
words, when the stress and significancy of the sentence 
rest chiefly upon them In this case they are not to be 
considered as circumstances but as the principal objects: 
,<as in the following sentence. " In their prosperity, my 
friends shall never hear of me, in their adversity, al» 
ways." Here, ik never" and " always 9 ' being emphaUcal 
words, were to be so placed as to make a strong impres- 
sion. 

The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence, 
is that in the members of a sentence, where two things are 
compared or contrasted with one another ; where either a 
resemblance or an opposition is intended to be expressed / 
some resemblance, in the language and construction, should 
be fire served For when the things t he ?ns elves correspond 
to each other, we naturally expect tojind a similar corres- 
pondence in the words. 

Thus, when it is said, " The wise man is happy when 
he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he recom- 
mends ivmself to the applause of those about him ;" the 
opposition would have been more regular, if it had been 
expressed thus : <■} The wise man is happy when he gains 
his own approbation; the fool, when he gains that of 
others " 

"A friend exaggerates a man's virtues : an enemy in- 
flames his crimes/' Better thus {i A friend exaggerates 
a man's virtues an enemy, his crimes " 

The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Ho- 
mer, fully exemplifies the rule just given : " Homer was 
the greater genius: Virgil the better artist: in the one 
we most admire the man ; in the other the wo^k. Homer 
hurries us with a command ng impetuosity : Virgil leads 
us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a 

A a2 



282 appendix* [Strength. 

generous profusion; Virgil bestows with a careful mag- 
nificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches 
with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, 
with a constant stream " — Periods thus constructed, when 
introduced with propriety, and not returning too often $ 
have a sensible beauty. But we must beware of carrying 
our attention to this beauty too far. It ought only to be 
occasionally studied, when comparison or opposition of 
objects naturally leads to it. If such a construction as 
this be aimed at, in all our sentences, it leads to a dis- 
agreeable uniformity ; produces a regularly returning 
clink in the period, which tires the ear ; and plainly dis- 
covers affectation. 

The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect 
of sentences, is, to attend to the ound, the harmony and 
easy Jlow, of the wo- ds and members. 

Sound is a quality much inferior to isense ; yet such as 
must not be disregarded For, as long as sounds are the 
vehicle or conveyance for our ideas, there will be a very 
considerable connexion between the idea which is c n- 
veyed, and the nature of the sound which conveys it.— 
Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, can hardly be 
transmitted to the mind, by means of harsh and disagree- 
able sounds. The mind revolts at such sounds, and the 
impression of the sentiment must consequently be weak- 
ened. The observations which we have to make on this 
subje- 1, respect the choice of words ; their arrangement ; 
the order and disposition of the members ; and the ca- 
dence or close of sentences. 

We begin with the choice of words. It is evident* 
that words are most agreeable to the ear, when they are 
comp sed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there 
is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants; with- 
out too many harsh consonants rubbing against each other ; 
or too many open vowels in succession, to cause a hiatus ; 
or disagreeable aperture' of the mouth. 

It may always be assumed as a principle, that whatever 
sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same 
proportion, harsh and painful to the ear. Vowels give 
softness; consonants, strength to the sound of words* 
The melody of language requires a just proportion of 
each ; and the construction will be hurt^ will be rendered 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 283 

either grating or effeminate, by an excess of either. 
Long words are commonly more agreeable to the ear 
than monosyllables. They please it by the composition or 
succession of sounds which they present to it ; and accord- 
ingly, the most harmonious languages abound most in 
them. Among words of any length, those are the most me- 
lodious, which o not run wholly either upon long or short 
syllables, but are composed of an intermixture of them: 
such as. re/ient, profess, powerful, velocity , celerity, inde- 
pendent, impetuosity. 

If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must 
avoid the use of such words as the following ; l. Such as 
are composed of words already compounded, the several 
parts of which are not easily, and therefore not closely 
united: as, " Unsuccessfulness, nvrongheadeiness, tender- 
heartedness :" 2 Such as have the syllables which imme- 
diately follow the accented syllable, crpwded with con- 
sonants that do not easily coalesce : as, u Questionless, 
chroniclers conventiclers ; 5 ' 3. Such as have two many syl- 
lables following the accented syllable: as, w Primarily, 
curso ily, summarily, fieremfitoriness :*' 4 Such as have 
a short or unaccented syllable repeated, or followed by 
another short or unaccented syllable very much resem- 
bling as, u Ho lily, sillily low lily, farriery." A little 
harshness, by the collision of consonants, which never- 
theless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and 
which do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable 
idea either of precipitation or of stammering, is by 
no means a sufficient reason for suppressing a use- 
ful term. The words hedg'd, fledgd, wedged, dr :d^d y 
grudged, adjudged, which some have thought very offen* 
sive, are not exposed to the objections which He against 
the words above-mentioned. We should not do well to 
introduce such hard and strong sounds too frequently; 
but when they are used sparingly and properly, they 
have even a good effect. They contribute to that variety 
in sound which is advantageous to language 

The next head, respecting the harmony which results 
from a proper arrangement of words, is a point of greater 
nicety. For, let the words themselves be ever so well 
chosen, and well sounding, yet, if they be ill disposed, the 
melody of the sentence is utterly lost, or greatly impaired, 



284 appendix* [Strength* 

That this is the case, the learners will perceive by the 
following examples " Measures simple and a moderate 
always are the best:" it would be better to say, " Sim- 
ple and moderate pleasures are always the best.' 5 " Of- 
fice or rank may be the recompense of intrigue, versa- 
tility, or flattery," better thus, " Rank or office may be 
the recompense of flattery, versatility, or intrigue." " A 
great recommendation of the guidance offered by integri- 
ty to us, is, that it is by all men easily understood:" bet- 
ter in this form ; " It is a great recommendation of the 
guidance offered to us by integrity; that it is easily un- 
derstood by all men." In the following examples, the 
words are neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce 
the most agreeable effect. u If we make the best of our 
life, it is but as a pilgrimage, with dangers surrounding 
it:" better thus, " Our life, at the best, is a pilgrimage, 
and dangers surround it." " We see that we are encum- 
bered with difficulties, which we cannot prevent:" bet- 
ter, " We perceive ourselves involved in difficulties that 
cannot be avoided." u It is plain to any one who views 
the subject, even slightly, that there is nothing here that 
is without allay and pure :" improved by this for h ; " It is 
evident to the slightest inspection, that nothing here is 
unallayed and pure," 

We may take for an instance of a sentence remarkably 
harmonious, the following from Milton's Treatise on Edu- 
cation: " We shall conduct you to a hill-side, laborious 
indeed, at the first ascent ; but else so smooth, so green, 
so full of goodly prospects, and melodious sounds on every 
side, that the harp of Orpheus was not more charming." 
Everything in this sentence conspires to promote the 
harmony. The words are well chosen; full of liquids, 
and soft sounds ; laborious, smooth, green, goodly , melodi- 
ous, charming ; and these words so artfully arranged, that 
were we to alter the situation of any one of them, we 
should presently, be sensible of the melody's suffering. 

To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, 
the following general directions will be found of some use. 
1st, When the preceding word ends with a vowel, let 
the subsequent one begin with a consonant ; and vict 
versa. A true friend, a cruel enemy, are smoother and 
easier to the voice, than a true union, a cruel destroyer* 



Strength.] perspicuity, &c. 285' 

But when it is more perspicuous or convenient, for vowels 
or consonants to end one word and begin the next, it is 
proper that the vowels be a long and short one ; and that 
the consonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of 
different sorts ; thus, a lovely offs firing ; fiurer design; 
a calm retreat ; are more fluent than a ha fifty union, a 
brief fie t Won, a cheafi trumfih a putrid distemfier y a calm 
matron, a clean nurse. From these examples, the student 
will perceive the -mportance of accurately understanding 
the nature of vowels and consonants, liquids and mutes ; 
with the connexion and influence which subsist amongst 
them. 2d, In general, a considerable number of long or 
short words near one another should be avoided. "Dis- 
appointment in our expectations is wretchedness :" bet- 
ter thus ;■" Disappointed hope is misery" u No course 
of joy can please us long:" better, u No course of en- 
joyment can delight us long." A succession of words 
having the same quantity in the accented syllables, whether 
it be long or short, should also be avoided, ifc James was 
needy, feeble, and fearful :" improved thus, " James 
was timid, feeble, and destitute*" " They could not be 
happy ; for he was silly, pettish, and sullen:" better thus % 
" They could not be happy ; for he was simple, peevish, 
and gloomy." 3d, Words which begin alike, or end 
alike, must not come together : and the last syllable of 
the preceding word, should not be the same as the first 
syllable of the subsequent one It is not so pleasing and 
harmonious to say, " This is a convenient contrivance;" 
^H^ is an indulgent parent ;" " She behaves wit- uni- 
form formality:" as, lC This is a useful contrivance :" 
" He is a kind arent " 6i She behaves with unvaried 
formality " 

We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, 
with regard to harmony. They should not be too long^ 
nor disproportionate to each other. When they have a 
regular and proportional division, they are much easier 
to the voice are more clearly understood and better re- 
membered, than when this rule is not attended to: for 
whatever tires the voice, and offends the ear, is apt to 
mar the strength of the expression, and to degrade the 
sense of the author. And this is a sufficient ground for 
paying attention to the order and proportion of senten- 



286 appendix. [Strength* 

ces, and the different parts of which they consist. The 
following passage exhibits sentences in which the differ- 
ent members are proportionally arranged. 

Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says ; " But his 
pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in 
knowledge he supplies by sufficiency. When he has 
looked about him as far as he can, he concludes there is 
no more to be seen; when he is at the end of his line, 
he is at the bottom of the ocean ; when he has shot his 
best, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, shoot better, 
or beyond it. His own reason he holds to be the certain 
measure of truth ; and his own knowledge, of* what is 
possible in nature/ Here every thing is at once easy 
to the breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the 
understanding. See another enample of the same kind, 
in the 17th and 18th verses of the 3d chapter of the pro- 
phet Habakkuk. We may remark here, that our present 
version of the Holy Scriptures, especially of the Psalms, 
abounds with instances of a harmonious arrangement of 
the words and members of sentences. 

In the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall be- 
come sensible of an effect very different from that of the 
preceding sentences. " This discourse, concerning the 
easiness of the Divine commands, does all along suppose 
and acknowledge the difficulties of the first entrance upon 
a religious course; except only in those persons who have 
had the happiness to be trained up to religion, by the 
easy and insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous edu- 
cation/' Here there is some degree of harshness and 
unpleasantness, owing principally to this, that there is 
properly no more than one pause or rest in the sentence, 
falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided: 
each of which is so long as to occasion a considerable 
stretch of the breath in pronouncing it. 

With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, 
care should be taken, that it be not abrupt, or unplea- 
sant. The following instance may be sufficient to show 
the propriety of some attention to this part of the rule. 
a Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good tem- 
per and prudence, are prosperous in general. ,? It would 
be better thus: " Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined 
with good temper and prudence, have ever been found 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 287 

the surest road to prosperity." An author speaking of 
the Trinity, expresses himself thus: « It is a mystery 
which we firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore 
the depth of." How much better would it have been 
with this transposition : " It is a mystery, the truth of 
which we firmly believe, and the depth of which we 
humbly adore." 

In order to give a sentence this proper close, the long- 
est member of it, and the fullest words, should be re- 
served to the conclusion. But in the distribution of the 
members, and in the cadence of the period^ as well as 
in the sentences themselves, variety must be observed; 
for the mind soon tires with a frequent repetition of the 
same tone. 

Though attention to the words and members, and the 
close of sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must also 
be kept within proper bounds. Sense has its own har- 
mony ; and in no instance should perspicuity, precision, 
or strength of sentiment, be sacrificed to sound. All un- 
meaning words, introduced merely to round the period, or 
fill up the melody, are great blemishes in writing. They 
are childish and trivial ornaments, by which a sentence 
always loses more in point of weight, than it can gain by 
such additions to its sound. See the Octavo Grammar y on 
this chapter. 

See also the appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence, is a judi- 
cious use of the Figures of Speech. 

As figurative language is to be met with in almost every 
sentence ; and, when properly employed, confers beauty 
and strength on composition; some knowledge of it ap- 
pears to be indispensible to the scholars, who are learning 
to form their sentences with perspicuity, accuracy, and 
force. We shall, therefore enumerate the principal 
figures, and give them some explanation. 

In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure 
from simplicity of expression ; the idea which we mean to 



-88 appendix. [Figures* 

convey is expressed in a particular manner, and with some 
circumstance added, which is designed to render the im- 
pression more strong and vivid. When -I say, for instance, 
" ^i 1 ^ ? 8 ood man en J°y s comfort in the midst of adversi- 
ty ;" I just express my thoughts in the simplest manner 
possible: but when I say, « To the upright there ariseth 
light in darkness /' the same sentiment is expressed in a 
figurative style ; a new circumstance is introduced ** light," 
is put in the place of " comfort," and " darkness" is used 
to suggest the idea of adversity. In the same manner, to 
say, " It is impossible, by any search we can make, to ex- 
plore the Divine Nature fully," is to make a simple propo- 
sition ; but when we say, < Canst thou, by searching, find 
out the Lord ? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfec- 
tion ? It is high as heaven, what canst thou do ? deeper 
than hell, what canst thou know ?" this introduces a figure 
into style ; the proposition being not only expressed, but 
with it admiration and astonishment. 

But, though figures imply a deviation from what may be 
reckoned the most simple form of speech, we are not 
thence to conclude, that they imply any thing uncommon, 
or unnatural. On many occasions, they are both the most 
natural, and the most common method of uttering our sen- 
timents. It would be very difficult to compose any dis- 
course without using them often ; nay, there are few sen- 
tences of considerable length, in which there does not 
occur some expression that may be termed a figure. This 
being the case, we may see the necessity of some atten- 
tion, in order to understand their nature and use. 

At the first rise of language, men would begin with 
giving names to the different objects which they discern- 
ed, or thought of. The stock of words would, then, be 
very small. As men's ideas multiplied, and their ac- 
quaintance with objects increased, their store of names 
and words would also increase. But to the vast variety 
of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No lan- 
guage is so copious, as to have a separate word for every 
separate idea* Men naturally sought to abridge this la- 
bour of multiplying words without end ; and, in order to 
lay less burden on their memories, made one word, which 
they had already appropriated to a certain idea or object, 
stand also for some other idea or object, between which 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 892 

and the primary one, they found, or fancied^ some relation. 
The name9of sensible objects, were the words most early 
Introduced ; and were, by degrees, extended to those men- 
tal objects, of which men had more obscure conceptions 5 
and to which they found it more difficult to assign distinct 
names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of some 
sensible idea, where their imagination found some affinity. 
Thus, we speak of a fiiercing- judgment, and a clear 
head; a soft or a hard heart; a rough or a smooth be- 
haviour. We say, inflamed by anger, warmed by love* 
'swelled with pride, melted into grief; and these are almost 
the only significant words which we have for such ideas. 

The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the 
two following. 

First, They enrich language, and render it more copi- 
ous. By their means, words and phrases are multiplied^ 
for expressing all sorts of ideas; for describing even the 
minutest differences; the nicest shades and colours of 
thought ; which no language could possibly do by proper 
words alone, without assistance from Tropes. 

Secondly, They frequently give us a much clearer and 
more striking view of the principal object, than we could 
have, if it were expressed in simple terms, and divested 
of its accessory idea. By a well chosen figure, even con- 
viction is assisted, and the impression of a truth upon the 
mind, made more lively and forcible than it would other- 
wise be. We perceive this in the following illustration 
of Young; H When we dip too deep in pleasure, we al- 
ways stir a sediment that renders it impure and noxious ; ,? 
and in this instance; "A heart boiling with violent pas- 
sions, will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." 
An image that presents so much congruity between a 
moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argument from 
analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce 
belief. 

Having considered the general nature of figures, we 
proceed next to particularize such of them as are of the 
most importance ; viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, 
Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, z\postrophe, 
Antithesis, Interrogation, Exclamation, Amplification or 
Climax, &c. 

A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resem- 
Bb 



290 appendix. [Figures* 

bianco which one object bears to another. Hence, it is 
much allied to simile or comparison, and is indeed no other 
than a comparison, expressed in an abridged form. When 
I say of some great minister, "that he upholds the state, 
like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," 
I fairly make a comparison : but when I say of such a 
minister, u That he is the pillar of the slate," it now 
becomes a metaphor. In the latter case, the comparison 
between the minister and a pillar is made in the mind ; 
but it is expressed without any of the words that denote 
comparison. 

The following are examples of metaphor taken from 
Scripture : " I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, 
and will be the glory in the midst of her." " Thou are my 
rock and my fortress." " Thy word is a lamp to my feet-, 
and a light to my path." 

Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 

1. Metaphors, as well as other figures, should on no oc- 
casion, be struck on profusely ; and should always be such 
as accord with the strain of our sentiment. The latter part 
of the following passage, from a*late historian, is, in this 
respect, very exceptionable. He is giving an account of 
the famous act of parliament against irregular marriages 
\xt England. " The bill," says he, " underwent a great 
number of alterations and amendments, which were not 
effected without violent contest. At length, however, it 
was floated through both houses on the tide of a great 
majority, and steered into the safe harbour of royal ap- 
probation." 

2. Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is 
the foundation of the metaphor, be clear and perspicuous, 
not far -fetched, nor difficult to discover. The transgression 
of tjhis rule makes what are called harsh or forced meta- 
phors ; which are displeasing, because they puzzle the 
reader, and instead of illustrating the thought, render it 
perplexed and intricate. 

3. In the third place, we should be careful, in the coa- 
duct of metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain 
language together. An author, addressing himself to the 
king, says : 

To thee the world its present homage pays ; 
The harvest early, but mature the praise 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 291 

It is plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the 
choice of an improper phrase, he would have said, 

The harvest early, hut mature the crop, ; 

and so would have continued the figure which he had be- 
gun. Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by employ- 
ing the literal word u praise, ,; when we were expecting 
something that related to the harvest, the figure is broken, 
and the two members of the sentence have no suitable 
correspondence to each other. 

4. We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors 
meet on one object. This is what is calied mixed metaphor, 
and is indeed one of the greatest misapplications of this 
figure. One may be " sheltered under the patronage of 
a great man :" but it would be wrong to say, " sheltered 
under the mask of dissimulation :" as a mask conceals 
but does not shelter. Addison in his letter from Italy, say$* 
I bridle in my strulgging muse with pain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled ; but when 
we speak of launching, we make it a ship ; and by no 
force of imagination, can it be supposed both a horse 
and a ship at one moment 5 bridled^ to hinder it from 
launching. 

The same author, elsewhere, says, u There is not a 
single view of human nature, which is not sufficient to 
extinguish the seeds of pride." Observe the incoherence 
of the things here joined together ; making a view extin- 
guish, and extinguish seeds. 

As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should 
not be crowded together on the same object ; for the mind 
has difficulty in passing readily through many different 
views of the same object, presented in quick succession. 

The last rule concerning metaphors, is, that they be not 
too far pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure 
is founded, be long dwelt upon, and carried into all its 
minute circumstances, we lire the reader, who soon 
grows weary of this stretch of fancy ; and we render our 
discourse obscure. This is called straining a metaphor. 
Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to run 
into this exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon 
a figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it 



292 appendix* [Figures, 

and frequently continue it so long, as to become tedious 
and intricate. We may observe, for instance, how the 
following metaphor is spun out. 

Thy thoughts are vagabonds; all outward bound, 
'Midst sands, and rocks, and storms, to cruise for plea- 
sure ; 
If gain'd, dear bought ; and better miss'd than gain'd. 
Fancy and sense, from an infected shore, 
Thy cargo bring ; and pestilence the prize : 
Then such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 
By fond indulgence but inflam'd the more; 
Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tired. 

An Allegory maybe regarded as a metaphor continued ;• 
since it is the representation of some one thing by another 
that resembles it and which is made to stand for it. We 
may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an 
allegory, in the 80th psalm ; where the people of Israel 
are represented under the image of a vine: and the 
figure is carried throughout with great exactness and 
beauty. u Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou 
hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst 
room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and 
it filled the land. The hills where covered with the sha- 
dow of it: and the boughs thereof were like the goodly 
cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her 
branches into the river. Why hast thou broken down 
her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do 
pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, 
and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return/ 
we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from hea- 
ven, and behold, and visit this vine !" See also Ezekieh 
xvii. 22—24. 

The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an 
allegory, is, that the figurative and the literal meaning be 
not mixed inconsistently together. Indeed, all the rules 
that were given for metaphors, may also be applied to 
allegories, on account of the affinity they bear to each 
other. The only material difference between them, be- 
sides the orae being short and the other being prolonged, 
is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words 
that are connected with it in their proper and natural 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 295 

meaning : as, when I say, " Achilles was a lion ;" " An 
able minister is the piller of the state ;" the " lion " and 
the u pillar" are sufficiently interpreted by the mention 
of " Achilles'* and the " minister," which I join to them ; 
but an allegory is or may be, allowed to stand less con- 
nected with the literal meaning, the interpretation not 
being so directly pointed out, but left to our own reflec- 
tion. 

Allegory was a favourite method of delivering instruc- 
tion in ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables, 
are no other than allegories. By words and actions at- 
tributed to beasts or inanimate objects, the dispositions of 
men were figured; and what we call the moral, is the 
unfi^ured sense or meaning of the allegory. 

A comparison or simile, is, when the resemblance be- 
tween two objects is expressed in form, and generally 
pursued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits: 
as when it is said, " The actions of princes are like 
those great rivers, the course of which every one be- 
holds, but their springs have been seen by few." u As 
the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is 
round about his people." u Behold, how good and how 
pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity ! 
It is like the precious ointment, &c. and as the dew that 
decended upon the mountains of Zion." 

The advantage of this figure arises from the illustra- 
tion which the simile employed gives to the principal ob* 
ject; from the clearer view which it presents ; or the 
more strong impression which it stamps upon the mind 
Observe the effect of it in the following instance. The 
author is explaining the distinction between the powers 
of sense and imagination in the human mind. " As wax," 
says he, " would not be adequate to the purpose of sig- 
nature, if it had not the power to retain as well as to re- 
ceive the impression, the same holds of the soul with 
respect to sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive 
power; imagination, its retentive. Had it sense without 
imagination, it would not be as wax, but as water, where, 
though all impressions are instantly made, yet as soon as 
they are made, they are instantly lost." 

In comparisons of this nature, the understanding is 
concerned much more than the fancy: and therefore the 

Bb2 



294 appendix. Figures.] 

rules to be observed, with respect to them, are, that 
they be clear, and that they be useful ; that they tend 
to render our conception of the principal objects more 
distinct; and that they do not lead our view aside, and 
bewilder it with any false light. We should always re- 
member that similes are not arguments. However apt 
they may be, they do no more than explain the writer's 
sentiments, they do not prove them to be founded on truth, 

Comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses 
which are too faint and remote. For these, in place of 
assisting, strain the mind to comprehend them, and throw 
no light upon the subject. It is also to be observed, that 
a comparison which, in the principal circumstances, car* 
ries a sufficiently near resemblance, may become unnatu- 
ral and obscure, if pushed too far. Nothing is more oppo- 
site to the design of this figure, than to hunt after a great 
number of coincidences in minute points, merely to show 
how far the writer's ingenuity can stretch the resem- 
blance. 

A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of cause 
and effect, container and contained, sign and things signi- 
fied. When we say; " They read Milton," the cause 
is put instead of the effect; meaning "Milton's works." 
On the other hand, when it is said, "Gray hairs should 
be respeeted," we put the effect for the cause, meaning 
hy " gray hairs," old age. " The kettle boils," is a 
phrase where the name of the container is substituted 
for that of the thing contained. " To assume the sceptre," 
is a common expression for entering on royal authority; 
the sign being put for the thing signified. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the 
whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus 
in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is 
put for the precise object meant ; the figure is then call- 
ed a Synecdoche or Comprehension. It is very common, 
for instance, to describe a whole object by some remark- 
able part of it : as when we say, " A fleet of twenty 
«a*7," in the place of" shifts ;" when we use the "head" 
for the " fierson" the " waves" for the " sea" In like 
manner, an attribute may be put for a subject : as, 
« Youth" for the " young," the " deep," for the " sea*" 
and sometimes a subject for its attribute. 



Figures.] perspicuity^ &c. 295 

Personification or Prosopopoeia^ is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The 
use of this figure is very natural and extensive : there is 
a wonderful proneness in human nature, under emotion, to 
animate all objects. When we say, " the ground thirsts 
for rain," or, " the earth smiles with plenty ;" when we 
speak of " ambition's being restless" or, " a disease's 
being deceitful;" such expressions show the facility with 
which the mind can accommodate the properties of liv- 
ing creatures to things that are inanimate, or to abstract 
conceptions of its own forming. The following are 
striking examples from the Scriptures: " When Israel 
went out of Egypt, the house of Judah from a people of 
strange language; the sea saw it, and fled: Jordan was 
driven back! The mountains skipped like rams, and 
the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O though sea 
that thou fleddest? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven 
back? Ye mountains, that ye skipped like rams; and ye 
little hills, like lambs? Tremble, thou earth at the pre- 
sence of the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob." 

" The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad 
for them: and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the 
rose." 

Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating 
the forbidden fruit. Terror produces the figure. 

Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 

In pangs, and nature gave a second groan; 

Sky lower'd and, muttYmg thunder, some sad drops - 

Wept at completing of the mortal sin. 

The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is suppo- 
sed to prompt the personification of all the objects he 
beheld, in order to procure information. 

Thou sun, said I, fair lighU 
And thou enlighten'd earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 

We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure, 
from bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified 
Natural Religion: and we may perceive, in the personifi- 



§96 appendix* [Figures. 

cation, the spirit and grace which the figure, when well 
conducted, bestows on discourse. The author is com- 
paring together our Saviour and Mahomet. "Go [says he] 
lo your Natural Religion: lay before her Mahomet, and 
his disciples, arrayed in armour and blood, riding in tri- 
umph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his victori- 
ous sword. Show her the cities which he set in flames-,, 
the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, and the 
miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the earth. 
When she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into 
his retirement; show here the Prophet's chamber; 
his concubines and his wives; and let her hear him al- 
lege revelation and a Dirine command, to justify his 
adultery and lust." 

" When she is tired with this prospect then, show her 
the blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all 
the sons of men. Let her see him in his most retired 
privacies ; let her follow him to the mount, and hear his 
devotions and supplications to God. Carry her to his 
table, to view his poor fare; and hear his heavenly 
dicourse. Let her attend him to the tribunal, and con- 
sider the patience with which he endured the scoffs and 
reproaches of his enemies. Lead her to his cross; let 
3ier view him in the agony of death, and hear his last 
prayer for his persecutors; i Father, forgive them, for 
they no not what they do.' — When Natural Religion 
has thus viewed both, ask her, which is the Prophet of 
God?— But her answer we have already had, when she 
saw part of this scene, through the eyes of the Centurion 
who attended at the cross. By him she spoke, and said 
6 Truly this man was the Son of God.'" This is more 
than elegant; it is truly sublime. The whole passage is 
animated; and the Figure rises at the conclusion, when 
Natural Religion, who before, \^as only a spectator, is 
introduced as speaking by the Centurion's voice. 

This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly and 
extravagantly applied. A capital error in personifying 
objects, is, to deck them with fantastic and trifling circum- 
stances. A practice of this sort dissolves the potent 
charm which enchants and deceives the reader; and 
either leaves him dissatisfied, or exites, perhaps^ his mi- 
bilfty. 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c, 2S7 

Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications;, 
consists in introducing them, when the subject of discus- 
sion is destitute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared 
to relish them. One can scarcely peruse, with compo? 
sure, the following use of this figure. It is the language 
of our elegant poet Thomson, who thus personifies anfl 
connects the bodily appetites, and their gratification, 

Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 
Produce the mighty bowl: 
Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn 
Mature and perfect, from his dark retreat 
Of thirty years : and now his honest front 
Flames in the light refulgent. 

It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short 
metaphors and similes, which also have been allowed to 
be the proper language of high passions, that they are the 
proper expression of it, only on those occasions when it 
is so far moderated as to admit of words. The first and 
highest transports seems to overwhelm the mind, and are 
denoted by silence or groans : next succeeds the violent 
and passionate language, of which these figures constitute 
a great part. Such agitation, however, cannot long con* 
tinue ; the passions having spent their force, the mind soon 
subsides into that exhausted and dispirited state, in which 
all figures are improper. 

Aftostrofihe is a tur \in^ off from the regular course of 
the subject, to address some person or thing ; as, "Death 
is swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting? 
O grave! where is thy victory ?** 

The following is an instance of personification and apo- 
strophe united : "O thou sword of the Lord ! how long 
will it be ere thou be quiet ? put thyself up into thy scab- 
bard, rest and be still ! How can it be quiet, seeing the 
Lord hath given it a charge against Askelon, and against 
the sea?shore ? there hath he appointed it." See also 
an extraordinary example of these figures, in the 14th 
chapter of Isaiah, from the 4th to the 19th verse, where 
the prophet describes the fall of the Assyrian empire. 

A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to 
deck the object addressed with affected ornaments ; by 
which authors relinquish the expression of passion^ an4 
substitute for it the language of fancy a 



298 appendix. [Figures 

Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too 
great length.* The language of violent passion is always 
concise, and often abrupt. It passes suddenly from 
one object to another. It often glances at a thought, 
starts from it, and leaves it unfinished. The succession 
of ideas is irregular, and connected by distant and un- 
common relations. On all these accounts, nothing is more 
unnatural than long speeches, uttered by persons under 
the influence of strong passions. Yet this error occurs 
in several puets of distinguished reputation. 

The next figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is 
founded on the resemblance; antithesis, on the contrast 
or opposition of two objects. Contrast has always the 
effect, to make each of the contrasted objects appear in 
the stronger light. White, for instance, never appears 
so bright as when it is opposed to black; and when both 
are viewed together. An author, in his defence of a 
friend against the charge of murder, expresses himself 
thus: " Can you believe that the person whom he scru- 
pled to slay, when he might have done so with full justice, 
in a convenient place, at a proper time, with secure im- 
punity; he made no scruple to murder against justise, in 
an unfavourable place, at an unseasonable time, and at 
the risk of capital condemnation .?" 

The following examples further illustrate this figure;. 

Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 

Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full. 

, " If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase 
his stores, but to diminish his desires." 

" If you regulate your desires according to the stand- 
ard of nature, you will never be poor; if according to 
the standard of opinion, you will never be rich." 
H A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the 
form of the two last examples; both because it is sup- 
posed to be the fruit of meditation, and because it is de- 
signed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls it 
more easily by the help of such contrasted expressions. 
But where such sentences frequently succeed each other; 
where this becomes an author's favourite and prevailing 
manner of expressing himself, his style appears too much 
studied and laboured; it gives us the impression of an 
author attending more to his manner of saying things^ 
than to the things themselves. 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 299 

The following is a beautiful example of Antithesis. 
u If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, 
for abandoning the cause of liberty, which he would not, 
however, survive; what shall we say of those, who em- 
brace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of it 
when they have much to hope, and give it up when they 
have nothing to fear?" — The capital antithesis of this. 
sentence, is instituted between the zeal of Cato for liber- 
ty, and the indifference of some others of her patrons. 
But, besides the leading antithesis, there are two subor- 
dinate ones, in the latter member: "Grow tired of it, 
when they have much to hope: and give it up, when 
they have nothing to fear." 

The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of 
this figure, in his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard, 
" He has visited all Europe, — not to survey the sump- 
tuousness of palaces, or the state liness of temples; not 
to make accurate measurements of the remains of ancient 
grandeur, nor to form a scale of the curiosity of modern 
arts; nor to collect medals, or collate manuscripts :— -but 
to dive into the depths of dungeons; to plunge into the 
infection of hospitals; to survey the mansions of sorrow 
and pain; to take the gage and dimensions of misery, de- 
pression, and contempt; to remember the forgotten, to 
attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and com- 
pare and collate the distresses of ail men, in all countries/* 
The next figure concerning which we are to treat is 
called Hyperbole or Exaggeration. It consists in magni- 
fying an object beyond its natural bounds. In all Ian* 
guages, even in common conversation, hyperbolical 
expressions very frequently occur: as swift as the wind; 
as white as the snow; and the like; and the common 
forms of compliment, are almost all of them extravagant 
hyperboles. If any thing be remakrably good or great 
in its kind, we are instantly ready to add to it some ex- 
aggerating epithet, and to make it the greatest or best 
we ever saw. The imagination has always a tendency to 
gratify itself, by magnifying its present object, and car- 
rying it to excess. More or less of this hyperbolical 
turn will prevail in language, according to the liveliness 
of imagination among the people who speak it. Hence 
young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the lan- 
guage of the Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than 



300 Appendix. [Figures* 

that of the Europeans, who are of more phlegmetic, or, 
perhapswemaysay,of more correct imagination. Hence, 
among all writers in early times, and in the rude periods 
qf society, we may expect this figure to abound. Greater 
experience, and more cultivated society , abate the warmth 
qf imagination, and chasten the manner of expression. 

Hyperboles are of two kinds; either such as are em- 
ployed in description, or such as are suggested by the 
warmth of passion. All passions without exception,4ove, 
terror, amazement, indignation, and even grief, throw 
the mind into confusion, aggravate their objects, and of 
course prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence the following 
sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly a9 they are de- 
acribed, contain nothing but what is natural and proper; 
Exhibiting the picture of a mind agitated with rage and 
despair. 

Me, miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 
Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell; 
And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 
Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide, 
To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven. 

The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the 
size of their leader. " I saw their chief," says the scout 
of Ossian, "tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted 
fir; his shield, the rising moon: he sat on the shore, like 
a cloud of mist on the hill." 

The errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arise 
either from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuit- 
able occasions. Dryden, in his poem on the restoration 
§f king Charles the Second, compliments that monarchy 
at the expense of the sun himself. 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
It stain'd the duller sun's meridian light. 

This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to ascer- 
tain, by any precise rule, the proper measure and boun- 
dary of this figure. Good sense and just taste must de- 
termine the point, beyond which, if we pass, we become 
extravagant. 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 301 

Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only 
in animated and warm composition. It is produced when, 
instead of relating something that is past, we use the pre- 
sent tense, and describe it as actually passing before our 
eyes. Thus, Cicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline: 
" I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the 
earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in 
one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps 
of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to 
my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in your 
miseries." 

This manner of description supposes a sort of enthu- 
siasm, which carries the person who describes, in some 
measure out of himself; and, when well executed, must 
needs, by the force of sympathy, impress the reader or 
hearer very strongly. But : in order to a successful ex- 
ecution, it requires an uncommonly warm imagination, 
and so happy a selection of circumstances, as shall make 
us think we see before our eyes the scene that is de- 
scribed. 

Interrogation. The unfigured, literal use of interroga- 
tion, is to ask a question: but when men are strongly 
moved, whatever they would affirm or deny, with great 
earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question, 
expressing thereby the strongest confidence of the truth of 
their own sentiment, and appealing to their hearers for the 
impossibility of the contrary. Thus Balaam expressed 
himself to Balak. " The Lord is not a man that he should 
lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath he 
said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hath he not spoken it ? and 
shall he not make it good ? 

Interrogations gives life and spirit to discourse. We see 
this in the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against 
Cataline : " How long will you, Cataline, abuse our pa- 
tience ? Do you not perceive that your designs are disco- 
vered ?" — He might indeed have said ; " You abuse our 
patience a long while. You must be sensible, that your 
designs are discovered." But it is easy to perceive, how 
much this latter mode of expression falls short of the force 
and vehemence of the former. 

Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions of the 

C c 



302 appendix. [Figures* 

mind; such as, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. 
" Wo is me that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the 
tents of Kedar !" Psalms. 

" O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain 
of tears, that I might weep day and night, for the slain of 
the daughter of my people ! O that I had in the wilderness 
a lodging -place of way-faring men l" Jeremiah. 

Though interrogations may be introduced into close and 
earnest reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emo* 
tions of the mind. When judiciously employed, they agi- 
tate the hearer or the reader with similar passions : but it 
is extremely improper, and sometimes ridiculous, to use 
them on trivial occasions, and on mean or low subjects. 
The unexperienced writer often attempts to elevate his 
language, by the copious display of this figure: but he 
rarely or never succeeds. He frequently renders his com- 
position frigid to excess, or absolutely ludicrous, by calling 
on us to enter into his transports, when nothing is said or 
done to demand emotion. 

Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to 
our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force 
to our observations. Persons may be reproved for their 
negligence, by saying; " You have taken great care in- 
deed." Cicero says of the person against whom he was 
pleading ; " We have great "reason to believe that the mo- 
dest man would not ask him for his debt, when he pursues 
his life." 

Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure ; 
which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing, in 
the clearest light, concludes with a feigned encouragement 
to pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having beau- 
tifully described the noise and tumults of Rome, he adds 
ironically ; 

K Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." 

The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds; 
and this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual 
than serious reasoning. The gravest persons ha\re not 
declined the use of this figure, on proper occasions. The 
wise and virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his 
endeavours to discountenance vicious and foolish practices. 
Even in the sacred writings, we have a remarkable instance 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 303 

of it. The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests 
of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, u mocked them, 
and said : Cry aloud for he is a god ; either he is talking, 
or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awaked." 

Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united : as in 
Cicero's oration for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, 
by saying ; " O excellent interpreter of the law ! master of 
antiquity ! corrector and amender of our constitution !" 

The last figure of speech that we shall mention, is what 
writers call Amplification or Climax. It consists in height- 
ening all the circumstances of an object or action, which 
we desire to place in a strong light. Cicero gives a 
lively instance of this figure, when he says; "It is a 
crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is the height of 
guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide to put him 
to death: what name then shall I give to the act of crucify- 
ing him ?" 

Archbishop Tillotson uses this figure very happily, to 
recommend good and virtuous actions : " After we have 
practised good actions awhile, they became easy ; and 
when they are easy, we -begin to take pleasure in them ; 
and when they please us, we do them frequently ; and 
by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit ; and con- 
firmed habit is a kind of second nature ; and so far as any 
thing is natural, so far it is necessary ; and we can hardly do 
otherwise ; nay, we do it many times when we do not think 
of it." 

We shall conclude this article with an example of a 
beautiful climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the 
jury, in the case of a woman accused of murdering her 
own child. " Gemlemen, if one man had any how slain 
another ; if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman 
occasioned the death of her enemy; even these criminals 
would have been capitally punished by the Cornelian law ; 
but if this guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had 
been murdered by its own nurse, what punishment would 
not then the mother have demanded ? With what cries and 
exclamations would she have stunned your ears ! What 
shall we say then, when a woman, guilty of homicide, a 
mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath com- 



304 appendix. [Figures, 

prised all those misdeeds in one single crime ? a crime in 
Us own nature, detestable ; in a woman, prod gfaus? fa a 

Sn e /L ,nCredlb,e - J and P er P etra "d against onf who e age 
called for compassion, whose near relation claimed affectbn 
and whose mnocence deserved the highest favour" 

We have now finished what was proposed, concerning 
Perspicuity in single words and phrases, and the accurat! 
construction of sentences. The former has oeen consN 
dered under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and PrecUion • 
and the latter, under those of Clearness, Unit?, sfren S? 
m.nJ f fu° P " USe - ° f Fi S ura <ive Language ThoS 
many of those attentions which have been recommended 
tnay appear minute, yet their effect upon writingTd Istyt' 

i™!? FT* than might ' at first ' * imagined A in 
timen which ,s expressed in accurate language, and fa a 
period, cfaarly, neatly, and well arranged, always makes a 

£"~ f° n $T min \ than -^haHs^ex^ed 3 
nn. fli !?' a feeble or em barrassed manner. Every 

one feels th.s upon a comparison: and if the effect be sensi- 

nl Mfn 6 v nt€ u Ce '. h0W much fflore in a wh °l« discoum, 
or composi ion that is made up of such sentences ? 

1 he fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and into 

which all others might be resolved! undoubtedly Ts.ro com. 

niumc^e, zn correct language, and in the clearest and most 

natural order, the idea* which we mean to transfuse into the 

mnds of others Such a selection and arrangement of words, 

vLt m ° St 3 T lCe t0 the sense ' and ex P re8S * t° most ad- 
vantage, make an agreeable and strong impression. To 
these points have tended all the rules which have been Ri- 
ven. Did we a ways think clearly, and were we, at the 
same time, fully masters of the language fa which we 
write, there would be occasion for few rules. Our sen- 
tences would then, of course, acquire all those properties 
of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, which have 
been recommended. For we may rest assured, that when- 
ever we express ourselves ill, besides the mismanagement 
ot language, there is, for the most part, some mistake in 
our manner of conceiving the subject. Embarassed, ob- 
scure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, 
the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought, 
i nought and expression act and re-act upon each other. 



Figures.] perspicuity, &c. 305 

The understanding and language have a strict connexion ; 
and they who are learning to compose and arrange their 
sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the 
same time, to think with accuracy and order ; a considera- 
tion which alone will recompense the student, for his atten- 
tion to this branch of literature. For a further explanation 
of the figures of SfieeChy see the Octavo Grammar^ on this 
subject. 



Cc2 



ADDRESS 
TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 



The Compiler of these elements of the English lan- 
guage, hopes it will not be deemed inconsistent with the 
nature and design of his work, to make a short address 
to the young persons engaged in the study of it, respect- 
ing their future walks in the paths of literature, and the 
chief purpose to which they should apply their acqui- 
sitions. 

In forming this Grammar, and the volume of Illus- 
trations connected with it, the author was influenced by 
a desire to facilitate your progress in learning, and, at 
the same time, to impress on your minds principles of 
piety and virtue. He wished also to assist, in some 
degree, the labours of those who are cultivating your 
understandings, and providing for you a fund of rational 
and useful employment; an employment calculated to 
exclude those frivolous pursuits, and that love of ease 
and sensual pleasure, which enfeeble and corrupt the 
minds of many inconsiderate youth, and render them 
useless to society. 

Without your own best exertions, the concern of 
others for your welfare^ will be of little avail : with 
them, you may fairly promise yourselves success. The 
writer of this address, therefore, recommends to you, 
an earnest co-operation with the endeavours of your 
friends to promote your improvement and happiness. 
This co-operation, whilst it secures your own progress, 
will afford you the heart-felt satisfaction, of knowing 
that you are cherishing the hopes, and augmenting the 
pleasures, of those with whom you are connected by the 
most endearing ties. He recommends to you also, se- 
rious and elevated views of the studies in which you may 



308 ADDRESS TO YOUNC STUDENTS, 

ta engaged. Whatever may be your attainments, never 
allow yourselves to rest satisfied with mere literary ac- 
quisitions, nor with a selfish or contracted application 
of them. When they advance only the interests of this 
stage of being, and look not beyond the present transient 
scene, their influence is circumscribed within a very 
narrow sphere. The great business of this life is to 
prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better,, 
by cultivating a pure and humble state of mind, and che- 
rishing habits of piety towards God, and benevolence to 
men. Every thing that promotes or retards this important 
work, is of great moment to you, and claims your firsj; 
and most serious attention. 

If, then, the cultivation of letters, and an advance- 
ment in knowledge, are found to strengthen and enlarge 
your minds, to purify and exalt your pleasures, and to 
dispose you to pious and virtuous sentiments and con- 
duct, they produce excellent effects ; which, with your 
best endeavours to improve them, and the Divine bless- 
ing superadded, will not fail to render you, not only wise 
and good yourselves, but also the happy instruments of 
diffusing wisdom, religion, and goodness around you. 
Thus improved, your acquisitions become handmaids to 
virtue; and they may eventually serve to increase the 
rewards which the Supreme Being has promised to 
faithful and well-directed exertions, for the promotion of 
truth and goodness amongst men. 

But if you counteract the hopes of your friends, and 
the tendency of these attainments; if you grow vain of 
your real or imaginary distinctions, and regard with 
contempt, the virtuous, unlettered mind ; if you suffer 
yourselves to be absorbed in over-curious or trifling 
speculations ; if your heart and principles be debased 
and poisoned, by the influence of corrupting and perni- 
cious books, for which no elegance of composition can 
make amends ; if you spend so much of vour time in li- 
terary engagements, as to make them " interfere with 
higher occupations, and lead you to forget, that pious 
and (benevolent action is the great end of your being : 



ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 3Q9 

if such be the unhappy misapplication of your acquisi- 
tions and advantages,— instead of becoming a blessing 
to you, they will prove the occasion of greater condem- 
nation ; and, in the hour of serious thought, they may 
excite the painful reflections,— that it would have been 
better for you, to have remained illiterate and unaspiring; 
to have been confined to the humblest walks of life ; and 
to have been even " hewers of wood and drawers of wa- 
ter" all your days. 

Contemplating the dangers to which you are exposed, 
the sorrows and dishonour which accompany talents mis- 
applied, and a course of indolence and folly, may you 
exert your utmost endeavours to avoid them ! Seriously 
reflecting on the great end for which you were brought 
into existence ; on the bright and encouraging examples 
of many excellent young persons; and on the mournful 
deviations of others, who once were promising ; may you 
be so wise as to choose and follow that path, which leads 
to honour, usefulness, and true enjoyment ! This is the 
morning of your life, in which pursuit is ardent, and ob- 
stacles readily give way to vigour and perseverance. 
Embrace this favourable season ; devote yourselves to 
the acquisition of knowledge and virtue ; and humbly 
pray to God that he may bless your labours. Often re- 
flect on the advantages you possess, and on the source 
from whence they are all derived. A lively sense of 
the privileges and blessings, by which you have been 
distinguished, will induce you to render to your heavenly 
Father, the just returns of gratitude and love : and these 
fruits of early goodness will be regarded by him as ac- 
ceptable offerings, and secure to you his favour and pro- 
tection. 

Whatever difficulties and discouragements may be 
found in resisting the allurements of vice, you may be 
humbly confident, that Divine assistance will be afforded 
to all your good and pious resolutions ; and that every 
virtuous effort will have a correspondent reward. You 
may rest assured too, that all the advantages arising 
from vicious indulgences, are light and contemptible, as 



310 ADDRESS YO YOUNG STUDENTS. 

well as exceedingly transient, compared with the sub- 
stantial enjoyments, the present pleasures, and the future 
hopes, which result from piety and virtue. The Holy 
Scriptures assure us, that u The ways of wisdom are 
ways of pleasantness, and that all her paths are peace :" 
u that religion has the promise of the life that now is, 
and of that which is to come ;*' and that the truly good 
man, whatever may be the condition allotted to him by 
Divine Providence, " in all things gives thanks, and re- 
joices even in tribulation." — Some of these sentiments 
have been finely illustrated by a celebrated poet. The 
author of this address presents the illustration to you, as 
a striking and beautiful portrait of virtue : with his most 
cordial wishes, that your hearts and lives may corre« 
spond to it ; and that your happiness here, may be an 
earnest of happiness hereafter. 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

u Virtue alone is happiness below : 

" The only point where human bliss stands still ; 

" And tastes the good, without the fall to ill : 

u Where only merit constant pay receives, 

" Is bless'd in what it takes, and what it gives ; 

" The joy unequali'd, if its end it gain, 

a And if it lose, attended with no pain ; 

* % Wthout satiety, though e'er so bless'd ; 

i% And but more relish'd as the more distress'd s 

" The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, 

" Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears : 

#< Good, from each object, from each place acquir'd ; 

u For ever exercis'd, yet never tir'd ; 

"Never elated, while one man's oppress'd; 

" Never dejected, while another's bless'd : 

*■ And where no wants, no wishes can remain ; 

" Since but to wish more virtue is to gain.— - 

" For him alone hope leads from goat to goal, 

** And opens still, and opens on his sou) ; 

" Till lengthen'd on to faith, and unconfin'd, 

" It pours the bliss that fills up ail the mind," 



THE END. 



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